Basiliscus ( grc-gre, Βασιλίσκος, Basilískos; died 476/477) was
Eastern Roman emperor
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as l ...
from 9 January 475 to August 476. He became in 464, under his brother-in-law, Emperor
Leo (457–474). Basiliscus commanded the army for an invasion of the
Vandal Kingdom in 468, which was defeated at the
Battle of Cape Bon. There were accusations at the time that Basiliscus was bribed by
Aspar, the ; many historians dismiss this, instead concluding that Basiliscus was either incompetent or foolish for accepting Vandal King
Gaiseric's offer of a truce, which the latter used to construct
fireships. Basiliscus's defeat cost the Eastern Empire of gold, causing the empire to hover above bankruptcy for 30 years. When Basiliscus returned to
Constantinople, he sought refuge in the
Church of St. Sophia. His sister, Empress
Verina, secured him a pardon and he left the church to retire in
Neapolis.
When Emperor Leo died in 474, his grandson Emperor
Leo II (474) took power, but soon died; his father,
Zeno (474–475, 476–491) ascended the throne in the same year, in a politically precarious position. Verina conspired to install the
Patricius, her lover, as emperor. This plot was supported by Basiliscus, who succeeded in recruiting Isaurian brothers
Illus and
Trocundes, as well as Verina's nephew
Armatus. Zeno fled on 9 January 475, either after learning of the plot or after Verina warned him that his life was in danger. Although Patricius was Verina's intended successor, Basiliscus convinced the
Eastern Roman Senate
The Byzantine senate or eastern Roman senate ( el, Σύγκλητος, ''Synklētos'', or , ''Gerousia'') was a continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries, but the senate's powers ...
to
acclaim him instead.
Basiliscus quickly lost the support of the people after a combination of heavy taxes, heretical policies, and a natural disaster viewed as divine wrath for said heretical views. In an attempt to increase support, he embraced the
miaphysites, restoring
Timothy Ailuros as the
Patriarch of Alexandria and
Peter the Fuller as
Patriarch of Antioch. He heeded their advice and issued an
encyclical on 9 April 475 which promoted the first three ecumenical councils of the church:
Nicaea,
Constantinople, and
Ephesus, and condemned the
Council of Chalcedon and the
Tome of Leo
Leo's Tome refers to a letter sent by Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople, explaining the position of the Papacy in matters of Christology. The text confesses that Christ has two natures, both fully human and fully divine. The letter was a top ...
. The
Patriarch of Constantinople,
Acacius, strongly opposed him, and together with
Daniel the Stylite
Saint Daniel the Stylite ( el, Δανιὴλ ὁ στυλίτης, c. 409 – 493) is a Saint and stylite of the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic Churches. He is commemorated on 11 December according to the liturgical calenda ...
, turned the population of Constantinople against Basiliscus.
Basiliscus quickly lost his allies, losing Verina almost immediately as a consequence of executing Patricius. Illus and Trocundes, who were besieging Zeno in his homeland of
Isauria, were convinced by Zeno to defect, and soon the three of them marched their troops toward the capital. Hearing this, Basiliscus ordered Armatus to take a number of troops and intercept them. Armatus betrayed Basiliscus after Zeno promised him the position of for life, and that his son,
Basiliscus, would be made . Armatus then directed his army away from the road which Zeno was traveling along, allowing Zeno to enter Constantinople unopposed in August 476. Basiliscus and his family hid in a church until Zeno promised not to execute them, and they were exiled to
Limnae in
Cappadocia, where they were either beheaded or imprisoned in a dried-up
cistern and left to starve to death.
Life
Early life and family
Basiliscus was born at an unknown date, likely in
the Balkans. He was the brother of future Empress
Verina, the wife of
East Roman Emperor Leo I ( 457–474). Historian
Stefan Krautschick
Stefan may refer to:
* Stefan (given name)
* Stefan (surname)
* Ștefan, a Romanian given name and a surname
* Štefan, a Slavic given name and surname
* Stefan (footballer) (born 1988), Brazilian footballer
* Stefan Heym, pseudonym of German writ ...
argues that since Basiliscus' nephew,
Armatus, was the brother of a barbarian named
Odoacer, Basiliscus was therefore also the uncle of Odoacer and thus a barbarian; this argument has been opposed by historians
Wolfram Brandes, and
Hugh Elton. Elton remarks that Krautschick's argument relies upon a single fragmentary Greek source, making his argument acceptable, but ignores the total lack of contemporary sources mentioning his ethnicity or relationship to Odoacer. Basiliscus married
Aelia Zenonis
Aelia Zenonis (Greek language, Greek: Ζηνονίς, 476/477) was Eastern Roman empress as the wife of Basiliscus. Her ancestry is unknown.
Empress
On 17 November 474, Leo II died and his father Zeno became sole emperor of the Eastern Roman Em ...
, and with her produced a son,
Marcus. Zenonis' origins are unknown, but she may have been a
miaphysite, as some authors credit her for pushing Basiliscus's religious policies. Basiliscus was also related by marriage to Emperor
Julius Nepos
Julius Nepos (died 9 May 480), or simply Nepos, ruled as Roman emperor of the West from 24 June 474 to 28 August 475. After losing power in Italy, Nepos retreated to his home province of Dalmatia, from which he continued to claim the western im ...
(474–475/480), as the uncle of Julius Nepos's wife. Zenonis is alleged to have taken Armatus, Basiliscus's nephew, as a lover. Byzantist
J.B. Bury, summarizing sources from the ,
Candidus, and
Malchus states that:
Military career
Leo rose to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire in 457 after the death of Emperor
Marcian (450–457).
Aspar, the , selected him for this position, much as he had selected Marcian himself. Despite being half-
Alanic
Alanic is a sports and fitness clothing brand headquartered in North Hollywood, California, USA. Alanic corporate offices are located at 1/49 Lemana lane, Sydney, Australia. It has been the official supplier of the Miami Marathon USA, Vancouve ...
and half-
Gothic, Aspar held much influence in the empire since the mid fifth century, and wielded significant power over Marcian and Leo. Basiliscus served as a military officer under Leo, and was made
consul of the East for 465, with
Flavius Hermenericus as consul of the West. Basiliscus was granted the rank of in 464, and held it till 467/468; during this period he won many victories in Thrace against the
Huns and Goths. He led troops in a war against a mixed group of the two in 466/467, along with
Anagast, Aspar, and
Ostrys. He was made a at some point, first mentioned as such in 468.
Around 466, Leo attempted to free himself of Aspar's control. He utilized the support of the
Isaurians, marrying the Isaurian chieftain
Zeno (474–475, 476–491) to his daughter
Ariadne
Ariadne (; grc-gre, Ἀριάδνη; la, Ariadne) was a Cretan princess in Greek mythology. She was mostly associated with mazes and labyrinths because of her involvement in the myths of the Minotaur and Theseus. She is best known for havi ...
, in exchange for support. This resulted in a significant change to eastern imperial policy, notably ending the policy of ignoring the requests from the West for military aid. After
Anthemius
Procopius Anthemius (died 11 July 472) was western Roman emperor from 467 to 472.
Perhaps the last capable Western Roman Emperor, Anthemius attempted to solve the two primary military challenges facing the remains of the Western Roman Empire: ...
(467–472), Marcian's son-in-law, was installed by Leo as Western emperor on 12 April 467, an embassy was sent to the
Vandal King
Gaiseric, to inform him as well as warn him not to interfere in
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
or the Western Roman throne; Gaiseric accused them of violating a prior treaty, possibly enacted in 433, and prepared for war. Rumors may have spread in Constantinople that the Vandals were preparing an invasion of
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
. As a result of this, in 468 Basiliscus was given command of an expedition against the Vandals, and likely promoted to at that time. It is said that the fleet consisted of 1,113 ships, with more than 100,000 men under the command of Basiliscus, including mercenaries from as far as
Öland,
Sweden. According to Bury, Leo was influenced by both Verina and Aspar in his selection of Basiliscus, whom he describes as both "incompetent and untrustworthy"; he further states that Aspar intentionally chose a poor commander, to prevent Leo from becoming stronger by way of weakening the Vandals. Historians
Gerard Friell and
Stephen Williams dismiss this, but accept that Verina pushed for his appointment and that Aspar did not object. Historian
Peter Heather
Peter John Heather (born 8 June 1960) is a British historian of late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Heather is Chair of the Medieval History Department and Professor of Medieval History at King's College London. He specialises in the fall ...
points out that, at this point, Basiliscus had just returned from considerable success on the Balkan frontier of the empire.
Marcellinus, a West Roman commander, was sent to capture
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
, and then to sail to link up with the Eastern armies near
Carthage, the Vandal capital. Basiliscus was to sail with the bulk of the forces directly to Carthage, and the Eastern
Heraclius of Edessa, was to gather up Eastern forces in
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
, disembark in
Tripolitania, and then to approach Carthage by land; forcing the Vandals to fight in three areas. Marcellinus seized Sardinia with little trouble, and Heraclius took the fortress of
Tripoli, Libya
Tripoli (; ar, طرابلس الغرب, translit= Ṭarābulus al-Gharb , translation=Western Tripoli) is the capital city, capital and largest city of Libya, with a population of about 1.1 million people in 2019. It is located in the northwe ...
, and both headed to connect with Basiliscus' forces. Basiliscus's
galleys
A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by oars. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, and low freeboard (clearance between sea and gunwale). Virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be use ...
scattered the Vandal fleet near
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, something said by
Procopius
Procopius of Caesarea ( grc-gre, Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς ''Prokópios ho Kaisareús''; la, Procopius Caesariensis; – after 565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar from Caesarea Maritima. Accompanying the Roman gen ...
to have caused Gaiseric to give all up for lost, fearing a decisive blow to capture Carthage. However, Basiliscus did not press his advantage and rested his forces in
Cape Bon, from Carthage; a strategic location as it was near the port of
Utica, which, unlike Carthage, was not blocked off with a chain and the winds would push opposing ships into the coast. According to historians
Michael Kulikowski
Michael Kulikowski (born September 3, 1970) is an American historian. He is Professor of History and Classics and Head of the History Department at Pennsylvania State University. Kulikowski specializes in the history of the western Mediterranean w ...
, Friell, and Williams, Gaiseric feigned interest in peace and proposed a five-day true, in order to allow himself time to prepare. Basiliscus accepted, possibly in favor of Aspar who opposed the war, in order to achieve a compromise with the Vandals. Heather notes that the Romans strongly intended to avoid a naval engagement, and archaeologist
George Bass
George Bass (; 30 January 1771 – after 5 February 1803) was a British naval surgeon and explorer of Australia.
Early years
Bass was born on 30 January 1771 at Aswarby, a hamlet near Sleaford, Lincolnshire, the son of a tenant farmer, George ...
suggests this might be the reason that Basiliscus hesitated to strike the Vandals.
Gaiseric assembled a new fleet with a number of
fire ships
A fire ship or fireship, used in the days of wooden rowed or sailing ships, was a ship filled with combustibles, or gunpowder deliberately set on fire and steered (or, when possible, allowed to drift) into an enemy fleet, in order to destroy sh ...
and, aided by good winds, attacked the Roman fleet at the
Battle of Cape Bon. The Roman fleet was routed by the combination of the fire ships, bad winds, and surprise, with half of it being destroyed. Basiliscus fled with the remainder of the fleet to Sicily, to consolidate with Marcellinus's forces; their morale and supply might have brought a victory, but Marcellinus was assassinated, possibly on
Ricimer
Flavius Ricimer ( , ; – 18/19 August 472) was a Romanized Germanic general who effectively ruled the remaining territory of the Western Roman Empire from 461 until his death in 472, with a brief interlude in which he contested power with An ...
s orders. Heraclius, who had not yet reached Carthage, returned to the Eastern Roman Empire by the path he came, and Basiliscus returned to Constantinople. The total cost of the armaments for the fleet was of gold, more than the entire treasury of the Eastern Empire, causing the Eastern Empire to waver above bankruptcy for more than 30 years.
Upon his return to Constantinople, Basiliscus sought refuge in the
Church of St. Sophia, before Verina interceded on his behalf to have him pardoned by Leo. He may have remained after this, but largely lived a life of retirement at
Heraclea on the
Propontis. Aspar was suspected of inducing Basiliscus to betray the expedition, sympathizing with the Vandals, and promising to make him emperor in place of Leo. Friell and Williams also reject this, commenting that the need to find a scapegoat is common in such disasters and that the accusation is implausible. One source,
Hydatius, states that Aspar was stripped of his rank for voicing his suspicions, but historians
A. H. M. Jones,
John Robert Martindale
John Robert Martindale (born 1935) is a British academic historian, specializing in the later Roman and Byzantine empires.
Martindale's major publications are his magnum opus, the three volumes of '' Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'', b ...
, and
John Morris state that this is almost certainly a confusion relating to the disgrace of
Ardabur, his son, who had given information the
Sassanid Empire regarding the military weakness of the empire.
After the failure of the invasion of Africa, Aspar gained power once more, and
Patricius, his son, married Leo's daughter
Leontia Porphyrogenita in 470, making Patricius the presumptive heir. Historian
L. M. Whitby suggests this may have been a ploy to lull Aspar into a sense of security. When anti-German sentiment rose up, Aspar and Leo fought over Aspar's influence, leading Leo to have him assassinated over suspicions of plots against him. Basiliscus supported Leo in his power struggle against Aspar, and subsequently
Theodoric Strabo
Theodoric (or Theoderic) Strabo ( la, Theodericus; died 481) was a Gothic chieftain who was involved in the politics of the Eastern Roman Empire during the reigns of Emperors Leo I, Zeno and Basiliscus. He was a rival for the leadership of the Ost ...
, in 471/472. Aspar and his son Ardabur were killed in 471 on Leo's orders, and Patricius who was severely wounded, was stripped of his position as and divorced from Leontia. After this, Zeno gained more power over the court. Theodoric Strabo attempted to avenge Aspar and marched against Constantinople, but was pushed back by Basiliscus and Zeno. A little later, he sent a series of demands to Leo in the capital and attacked
Arcadiopolis and
Philipopolis, but was forced to negotiate soon after due the lack of supplies.
Rise to power
When Leo fell ill in 473, he had his grandson,
Leo II ( 474), the son of Zeno and Ariadne, crowned as emperor in October 473. Leo died on 18 January 474, and Leo II took the throne. Zeno was installed as co-emperor, crowned on 29 January, and when Leo II died in Autumn, Zeno became the sole eastern emperor. Zeno likely had Theoderic Strabo stripped of his role as . Zeno was very unpopular, among both the common people and the senatorial class, in part simply because he was an Isaurian, a race which had acquired a poor reputation under Emperor
Arcadius
Arcadius ( grc-gre, Ἀρκάδιος ; 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to 408. He was the eldest son of the ''Augustus'' Theodosius I () and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and the brother of Honorius (). Arcadius ruled the ...
( 383–408), and also because his rule would induce a promotion of fellow Isuarians to high positions.
Although Verina had supported Zeno's elevation as co-emperor to Leo II, she turned against him once he became sole emperor. The causes for this are disputed. The Byzantists Bury and
Ernst Stein Ernst Edward Aurel Stein (19 September 1891, in Jaworzno – 25 February 1945, in Fribourg) was an Austrian-Jewish Byzantinist and a historian of Late Antiquity.
Ernst was the son of Ernst Eduard Stein and Henrietta Rosalie (née Hein) and the ...
suggest this was motivated by personal hatred, and
Ernest Walter Brooks, historian and scholar of the Syriac language, suggests the Isaurian background of Zeno directly caused the hatred of Verina and the people. Historians
Kamilla Twardowska and
W. D. Burgess argue that his ethnicity likely exacerbated existing hatred, but did not solely cause it. Twardowska also dismisses
Evagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus ( el, Εὐάγριος Σχολαστικός) was a Syrian scholar and intellectual living in the 6th century AD, and an aide to the patriarch Gregory of Antioch. His surviving work, ''Ecclesiastical History'' (), compris ...
' suggestions, especially that of him leading a "dissolute life", stating that is common of historians wishing to paint an emperor in a bad light. Historian
Mirosław Leszka attributes the action to a simple desire for power, and Twardowska theorizes that Verina supported him while Leo II was emperor because she would still retain influence as a close relative, which she would not wield over Zeno himself. Zeno had the option of raising another son from a previous marriage to the throne, or else his brother,
Longinus, which would remove any remnant of Verina's influence. Byzantine chronicler
John Malalas states that Verina put forth a request which Zeno denied, causing her conspiracy, but does not specify the request; historian
Maciej Salamon has argued that this request would be to have Basiliscus and her other relatives placed in high positions.
Verina conspired with others to remove him as emperor, and historians generally accept that she planned to install her lover, the
Patricius, as emperor and to marry him. She was supported in this plot by Theoderic Strabo, angered by Zeno's coronation, and Basiliscus, who succeeded in recruiting
Illus and
Trocundes, Isaurian brothers, as well as her nephew Armatus. The plot had the backing of the military, bolstered by Basiliscus' popularity, and that of Illus and Trocundes, and also the support of the
Eastern Roman Senate
The Byzantine senate or eastern Roman senate ( el, Σύγκλητος, ''Synklētos'', or , ''Gerousia'') was a continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries, but the senate's powers ...
. The position of the
Patriarch of Constantinople,
Acacius, is unclear, although Twardowska considers it likely that he would have withheld support from either side until the outcome was clear. The exact date the conspiracy began is unknown: Salamon argues it began around 473, whereas Twardowska argues it began only after Zeno took sole power. The conspiracy was successful, as Zeno fled to his native Isauria on 9 January 475, either after learning of the conspiracy or after being convinced by Verina that his life was in danger, taking with him a number of companions and funds. Many remaining Isuarians were massacred in Constantinople when news of his flight spread. Basiliscus convinced the senate to
acclaim him emperor, instead of Patricius, and Basiliscus was crowned at the
Hebdomon palace. He immediately had his son, Marcus, crowned as , and later co-emperor, while his wife was crowned and Patricius was executed. Zeno took residence in the fortress of
Olba, and later
Sbida. Illus and Trocundes were sent by Basiliscus to lay siege to Zeno's fortress, and capturing Longinus, whom Illus would not release until 485.
Reign
Basiliscus quickly lost support in Constantinople, through a combination of heavy taxes and heretical ecclesiastical policies, as well as a natural disaster. A large fire broke out in the quarter of
Chalkoprateia in 475/476, before quickly spreading. The fire destroyed the
Basilica
In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's Forum (Roman), forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building ...
, a library containing 120,000 books, as well as the
Palace of Lausus, the ''
Aphrodite of Knidos
The Aphrodite of Knidos (or Cnidus) was an Ancient Greek sculpture of the goddess Aphrodite created by Praxiteles of Athens around the 4th century BC. It is one of the first life-sized representations of the nude female form in Greek history, di ...
'', the
Lindian Athene, and the
Samian Here. As Bury remarks, the fire served as all "accidents in superstitious ages always help...to render his government unpopular". Many at the time viewed the fire as a symbol of divine wrath against him.
While Basiliscus's rise was not illegal, as usurpations confirmed by the senate were generally considered legitimate, such had not happened for over a century in the Eastern Roman Empire. Additionally, he was politically incompetent and temperamental, alienating much of his support. While Basiliscus was supported initially by the elites of the Eastern Roman Empire, he never gained much popularity amongst the common people, weakening his legitimacy; his conflicts with Acacius reduced his support from the people of Constantinople, who were heavily Chalcedonian. Basiliscus was forced to levy heavy taxes by the near-bankruptcy of the empire, and also to sell off public positions for money. He utilized the
Epinicus, a former ally of Verina, to extort money from the church. Verina turned against Basiliscus after the execution of her lover and began to plot to return Zeno to power, and sought refuge in
Blachernae. It is not known if she fled because of her support or began to support Zeno after she fled, as the source, Candidus, is unclear, but the
Vita Danielis Stylite states that she remained there until after Basiliscus died.
Basiliscus had Armatus made , allegedly at the insistence of Zenonis. This turned Theoderic Strabo against him, as he hated Armatus. Armatus was also made consul in 476, alongside Basiliscus himself. Illus and Trocundes, laying siege to Zeno in his native lands, defected to him. This has usually been ascribed to a failure to fulfill unspecified promises made to them, as given by
Theophanes the Confessor, which many historians identify as a promise to make them both , but Leszka challenges this, arguing that Theophanes does not specify the promises because he invented them as the most likely explanation. Leszka questions that Basiliscus would entrust military command to men he had lied to, and argues that they were motivated instead by fear that Basiliscus would be overthrown, or else religious opposition. From February/March 476, Basiliscus remained in the
Hebdomon, out of fear of the capital's populace; this news may have motivated them, along with letters received from ministers of the capital. These letters informed them that the city was now ready to restore Zeno, as the people had become even less supportive of Basiliscus due to the "fiscal rapacity of his ministers", as Bury puts it. Illus, possibly buoyed by his hold over Zeno, by way of his imprisonment of his brother, arranged to ally him and they began to march towards Constantinople with their combined forces.
Basiliscus ordered Armatus to take command of all the troops in
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...
and Constantinople, as well as the palace guard, and lead them against the three. In spite of his oath of loyalty, Armatus betrayed Basiliscus when Zeno offered to have him made for life, and his son,
Basiliscus, crowned as . He allowed Zeno to pass to Constantinople unhindered, taking a separate road from the one which Zeno was travelling on to avoid confronting him, and marched instead into Isaura. Zeno entered Constantinople unopposed in August 476. Basiliscus and his family fled and took refuge in a church, only leaving once Zeno promised not to execute them. Zeno exiled them to
Limnae in
Cappadocia, where they were imprisoned in a dried-up cistern, and left to starve to death. According to some sources, they were instead beheaded.
Religious policies
During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of
Jesus Christ were associated, following the
Arian controversy
The Arian controversy was a series of Christian disputes about the nature of Christ that began with a dispute between Arius and Athanasius of Alexandria, two Christian theologians from Alexandria, Egypt. The most important of these controversies ...
. The
School of Alexandria, including theologians such as
Athanasius
Athanasius I of Alexandria, ; cop, ⲡⲓⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲡⲓⲁⲡⲟⲥⲧⲟⲗⲓⲕⲟⲥ or Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲁ̅; (c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, ...
, asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The
School of Antioch
The Catechetical School of Antioch was one of the two major centers of the study of biblical exegesis and theology during Late Antiquity; the other was the Catechetical School of Alexandria. This group was known by this name because the advocates ...
, including theologians such as
Theodore of Mopsuestia
Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350 – 428) was a Christian theologian, and Bishop of Mopsuestia (as Theodore II) from 392 to 428 AD. He is also known as Theodore of Antioch, from the place of his birth and presbyterate. He is the best know ...
, determined not to lose the human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity. Shortly before Marcian had become emperor, the
Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, called ; this was rejected by the
Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople because of disputes on the matter of
Christology, as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw the belief in miaphysis as
heretical
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
. Marcian convened the
Council of Chalcedon in October 451, attended by about 500 bishops, most of them Eastern Roman. This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature () and a human nature, united in one person (), "without confusion, change, division, or separation." The council also repeated the importance of the
See of Constantinople
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ( el, Οἰκουμενικὸν Πατριαρχεῖον Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, translit=Oikoumenikón Patriarkhíon Konstantinoupóleos, ; la, Patriarchatus Oecumenicus Constanti ...
in Canon 28, placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, placing it over the Sees of
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
,
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, and
Antioch.
Basiliscus rose to power during a time when the miaphysite faction was growing in power, and his attempts to ally them to himself backfired severely. Historian
Jason Osequeda posits that Basiliscus's mistake was "appearing as the member of one sphere attempting to intrude into the other, rather than using influence and negotiation to achieve his platform", and that he was unaware of his outsider status, causing him to be viewed as "attempting to usurp not only an earthly crown but a spiritual one too." Some historians view it likely that Zenonis influenced Basiliscus towards miaphysitism. Basiliscus had
Theoctistus, a miaphysite, made , and he received the miaphysite patriarch
Timothy Ailuros, who returned from his exile in
Crimea after the death of Leo. By them Basiliscus was persuaded to attack the tenets of Chalcedonianism. Basiliscus had Timothy Ailuros restored as the
Patriarch of Alexandria, and
Peter the Fuller as
Patriarch of Antioch. Under his reign the
Third Council of Ephesus
The Third Council of Ephesus was held in the Anatolian city of Ephesus in 475. It was presided over by Pope Timothy II of Alexandria, and also attended by Peter the Fuller, then Patriarch of Antioch, and Paul the Exarch of Ephesus. It ratified a ...
was held in 475, presided over by Timothy Ailuros, which officially condemned the Council of Chalcedon, and a synodical letter was sent to Basiliscus requesting that Patriarch Acacius be stripped of his role. Historian
Richard Price
Richard Price (23 February 1723 – 19 April 1791) was a British moral philosopher, Nonconformist minister and mathematician. He was also a political reformer, pamphleteer, active in radical, republican, and liberal causes such as the French ...
argues that Basiliscus' association with Timothy Ailuros also reduced his support as some rumors suggested that Timothy had a role in the murder of
Proterius of Alexandria
Hieromartyr Proterius of Alexandria (died 457) was Patriarch of Alexandria from 451 to 457. He had been appointed by the Council of Chalcedon to replace the deposed Dioscorus.
History
Proterius was elected by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 t ...
, a Chalcedonian, and his ties to Timothy were seen as tacit approval of this murder.
Basiliscus issued an
encyclical on 9 April 475, which promoted the first three ecumenical councils of the church:
Nicaea,
Constantinople, and
Ephesus, and condemned the Council of Chalcedon and the
Tome of Leo
Leo's Tome refers to a letter sent by Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople, explaining the position of the Papacy in matters of Christology. The text confesses that Christ has two natures, both fully human and fully divine. The letter was a top ...
. While enthusiastically received in
Ephesus and Egypt, it resulted in outrage from the monasteries as well as alienating Patriarch Acacius, and the heavily Chalcedonian population of the capital. Repudiating the Council of Chalcedon invalidated Canon 28 of it, ending Acacius's control over the Eastern sees, and as such Acacius refused to sign it. Acacius draped the Church of St. Sophia in black, and lead a congregation in mourning. This caused Basiliscus to leave the city, and a significant portion of the city to support Zeno's return. The popular (pillar monk)
Daniel the Stylite
Saint Daniel the Stylite ( el, Δανιὴλ ὁ στυλίτης, c. 409 – 493) is a Saint and stylite of the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic Churches. He is commemorated on 11 December according to the liturgical calenda ...
, whom Basiliscus had been attempting to sway to his side, rejected his efforts after the publication of the eynciclal, and descended from his pillar to pray alongside Acacius, branding Basiliscus as a "second
Diocletian" for his attacks on the church.
There is some debate over the differences between the encyclical presented by Evagrius Scholasticus and that of
Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor. Notably, Evagrius' version does not contain some of the references to the Council of Nicaea and the Second Council of Ephesus, making it less extreme.
Philippe Blaudeau suggests that the one presented by Evagrius was a modified version presented to Acacius, as it would be more palatable to him; as well as that the language of the original would have made
Eutychians believe that Timothy and Basiliscus agreed with them, and the subsequent document clarified their positions. The current consensus among historians is that Evagrius' version was the original, made more extreme after the Third Council of Ephesus. Some arguments have been made by
Eduard Schwartz
Eduard Schwartz (22 August 1858 – 13 February 1940) was a German classical philologist.
Born in Kiel, he studied under Hermann Sauppe in Göttingen, under Hermann Usener and Franz Bücheler in Bonn, under Theodor Mommsen in Berlin and under Ul ...
,
Hanns Brennecke
Hanns is a given name. Notable people with the name include:
*Hanns Blaschke (1896–1971), Austrian politician
*Hanns Bolz (1885–1918), German expressionist and cubist painter
*Hanns Brandstätter (born 1949), Austrian fencer
*Hanns Braun (188 ...
, and
René Draguet that Basiliscus approved Evagrius' text, but that the more extreme version was written by
Paul the Sophist. Whatever the case, Basiliscus soon voided his encyclical, issuing a new letter dubbed the "
anti-encyclical", revoking his previous encyclical, reaffirming condemnation of heresy, and restoring the rights of Canon 28 to Acacius, but did not explicitly mention the Council of Chalcedon. Notably, the first encyclical also asserted the right for an emperor to dictate and judge theological doctrine, subsuming the function of an
Ecumenical Council, and is worded much like an imperial edict. Although Acacius and Basiliscus had feuded since the first months of his reign, Daniel later played the part of a diplomat, reconciling them near the end of the latter's reign, before Zeno retook Constantinople. All of Basiliscus' religious edicts were annulled by the
Sebastianos in December 477, by order of Zeno.
In popular culture
Basiliscus is part of a 1669 play written by Sir
William Killigrew, ''
The Imperial Tragedy'', where he appears as a ghost, during the second reign of Zeno.
Sources
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Ancient sources
*The
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Candidus Isaurus
*The
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Evagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus ( el, Εὐάγριος Σχολαστικός) was a Syrian scholar and intellectual living in the 6th century AD, and an aide to the patriarch Gregory of Antioch. His surviving work, ''Ecclesiastical History'' (), compris ...
, III.iv
*The
*
George Kedrenos
George Kedrenos, Cedrenus or Cedrinos ( el, Γεώργιος Κεδρηνός, fl. 11th century) was a Byzantine Greek historian. In the 1050s he compiled ''Synopsis historion'' (also known as ''A concise history of the world''), which spanned the ...
*
Hydatius
*
Joannes Zonaras
*
John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû (fl. 680-690) was an Egyptian Coptic bishop of Nikiû (Pashati) in the Nile Delta and general administrator of the monasteries of Upper Egypt in 696. He is the author of a ''Chronicle'' extending from Adam to the end of the Muslim ...
*
John Malalas
*
Jordanes
Jordanes (), also written as Jordanis or Jornandes, was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat widely believed to be of Gothic descent who became a historian later in life. Late in life he wrote two works, one on Roman history ('' Romana'') a ...
*
Malchus
*
Marcellinus Comes Marcellinus Comes (Greek: Μαρκελλίνος ό Κόμης, died c. 534) was a Latin chronicler of the Eastern Roman Empire. An Illyrian by birth, he spent most of his life at the court of Constantinople. His only surviving work, the ''Chronicl ...
*
Michael the Syrian
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Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos
*
Pamprepius
*
Patria of Constantinople The ''Patria'' of Constantinople ( el, Πάτρια Κωνσταντινουπόλεως), also regularly referred to by the Latin name ''Scriptores originum Constantinopolitarum'' ("writers on the origins of Constantinople"), are a Byzantine collec ...
*
Photios
Photios I ( el, Φώτιος, ''Phōtios''; c. 810/820 – 6 February 893), also spelled PhotiusFr. Justin Taylor, essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Materia ...
*
Priscus
*
Procopius
Procopius of Caesarea ( grc-gre, Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς ''Prokópios ho Kaisareús''; la, Procopius Caesariensis; – after 565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar from Caesarea Maritima. Accompanying the Roman gen ...
*The
*
Theodorus Lector
Theodorus Lector ( el, Θεόδωρος Ἀναγνώστης, ''Theodoros Anagnostes'') was a lector, or reader, at the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople during the early sixth century. He wrote two works of history; one is a collection of sources ...
*
Theophanes the Confessor
*
Victor of Tunnuna
*The
*The
*
Zacharias Scholasticus
*The ''
Zuqnin Chronicle''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Basiliscus
House of Leo
Imperial Roman consuls
470s deaths
5th-century Byzantine emperors
5th-century Roman consuls
Year of birth unknown