Buhen, alternatively known as Βοὥν (Bohón) in

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

, stands as a significant

ancient Egyptian Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower E ...

settlement on the western bank of the Nile, just below the Second Cataract in present-day Northern State,

Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...

. Its origins trace back to the

Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...

period (about 2686–2181 BCE), where it served as an Egyptian colonial town, particularly recognized for copper

smelting Smelting is a process of applying heat and a chemical reducing agent to an ore to extract a desired base metal product. It is a form of extractive metallurgy that is used to obtain many metals such as iron-making, iron, copper extraction, copper ...

. In 1962, archaeological discoveries brought to light an ancient copper manufacturing facility encircled by an imposing stone barrier, indicating its origin during the rule of

Sneferu Sneferu or Soris (c. 2600 BC) was an ancient Egyptian monarch and the first pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, during the earlier half of the Old Kingdom period (26th century BC). He introduced major innovations in the design and constructio ...

in the 4th Dynasty. Inscriptions and graffiti disclosed a continuous Egyptian presence spanning two centuries, only to be interrupted by migration from the southern regions in the 5th Dynasty.

History of Buhen

In the

(about 2686–2181 BCE), there was an Egyptian colonial town at Buhen, which was also used for copper working. An archaeological investigation in 1962 revealed what was described as an ancient copper factory. This was surrounded by a massive though crude stone wall, and further evidence points to the colony having been supplied from the north.Brian Yare
The Middle Kingdom Egyptian Fortresses in Nubia.
2001 The settlement may have been established during the reign of

, of the 4th Dynasty. Nevertheless, there is evidence of earlier 2nd Dynasty occupation at Buhen.

Graffiti Graffiti (singular ''graffiti'', or ''graffito'' only in graffiti archeology) is writing or drawings made on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written "monikers" to elabor ...

and other inscribed items from the site show that the Egyptians stayed about 200 years, until late in the 5th Dynasty, when they were probably forced out by immigration from the south. In the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE), the fortress at Buhen was established. The physical geography of Buhen worked to the benefit of the fortress. The large rock wall provided a strong preliminary base for the construction of the fortress. During the Middle Kingdom, the majority of people occupying Buhen were Egyptians who were directed south from

Lower Egypt Lower Egypt ( ') is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, the Nile River split into sev ...

, and cycled through. Following the Middle Kingdom came the Second-Intermediate Period. With the Second Intermediate Period came the Funerary Stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb. The excavation of the stele produced a new understanding of the annexation of

Nubia Nubia (, Nobiin language, Nobiin: , ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the confluence of the Blue Nile, Blue and White Nile, White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), and the Cataracts of the Nile, first cataract ...

at the site of Buhen. The stele iterates that the Egyptians who had gained control over Buhen had been dependent on Nubian kings in achieving this.

The Buhen Horse

The Buhen horse holds significant archaeological importance, particularly noted in the works of Professor Emery in 1959 and 1960. Currently housed at the Khartoum Museum and on loan to the Department of Egyptology at

University College London University College London (Trade name, branded as UCL) is a Public university, public research university in London, England. It is a Member institutions of the University of London, member institution of the Federal university, federal Uni ...

, the horse's skeleton originates from excavations conducted at the Buhen fortress by the Egypt Exploration Society, under Emery's direction in 1958 and 1959. During the initial sacking of the fortress circa 1675 BC, the horse, potentially confined between two bastions of the main fortress wall, met its demise, falling onto a brick pavement. Subsequent layers of rubble and the later reconstruction efforts of the New Kingdom encased the horse's remains within the fortress walls, offering a clear chronological context for its discovery. Identifying the species of the animal posed an initial challenge. Since true horses were not native to

Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower E ...

, while both wild and domestic asses were common, and Grevy's zebra ( Equus grevyi) was likely available, confirming its identity was crucial. Notably, Grevy's zebra, the largest and northernmost distributed among zebra species, could feasibly be mistaken for a horse. However, the structure of the Buhen horse's skeleton aligns with those introduced into various regions during the same era, such as India, Iran, northern

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

, and

Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...

Fortress

Buhen is known for its large

fortress A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from L ...

, probably constructed during the rule of

Senusret III Khakaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or the hellenised form, Sesostris III) was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of great power and prosperity, and was the fifth king of the Twelfth ...

in around 1860 BCE (12th Dynasty). Senusret III conducted four campaigns into

Kush KUSH 1600 AM is a radio station licensed to Cushing, Oklahoma. The station broadcasts a Full service format, consisting of local and national talk, sports Sport is a physical activity or game, often competitive and organized, tha ...

and established a line of forts within signaling distance of one another; Buhen was the northernmost of these. The other forts along the banks were Mirgissa,

Shalfak Shalfak (originally ''Waf-Chastiu'', "subduing the foreign lands") is an Ancient Egyptian fortress once built up on the western shore of the Cataracts of the Nile, Second Cataract of the Nile#In Sudan, Nile River on what is now an island in Lake ...

Uronarti Uronarti is an island and archaeological site in the Nile just south of the Cataracts of the Nile, Second Cataract in the north of Sudan. The site features a massive ancient fortress that still stands on its northern end. This fortress is one of ...

, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna, and Kumma. The Kushites captured Buhen during the 13th Dynasty, and held it until

Ahmose I Ahmose I (''Amosis'', ''Aahmes''; meaning "Iah (the Moon) is born") was a pharaoh and founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt in the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. His reign is usually d ...

recaptured it at the beginning of the

18th Dynasty The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XVIII, alternatively 18th Dynasty or Dynasty 18) is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty ...

. One of the contributing factors for the creation of the fortress in Buhen was the goal of annexing Nubia. Both

Senusret I Senusret I (Egyptian language, Middle Egyptian: wikt:z-n-wsrt, z-n-wsrt; /suʀ nij ˈwas.ɾiʔ/) also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 ...

and

dedicated much of their reign to campaigning into Nubia, in an attempt to extend the boundaries of Egypt. In doing so, the two kings built the fortress in Buhen, along with the other fortresses around the 2nd cataract. These fortresses established a new border for

Upper Egypt Upper Egypt ( ', shortened to , , locally: ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the Nile River valley south of the delta and the 30th parallel North. It thus consists of the entire Nile River valley from Cairo south to Lake N ...

. The fortress itself extended more than along the west bank of the Nile. It covered , and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it probably had a population of around 3,500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, drawbridges, bastions,

buttresses A buttress is an architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall. Buttresses are fairly common on more ancient (typically Gothic) buildings, as a means of providing support to act a ...

, ramparts,

battlements A battlement, in defensive architecture, such as that of city walls or castles, comprises a parapet (a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which gaps or indentations, which are often rectangular, occur at intervals t ...

, loopholes, and a

catapult A catapult is a ballistics, ballistic device used to launch a projectile at a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants – particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden rel ...

. The outer wall included an area between the two walls pierced with a double row of arrow loops, allowing both standing and kneeling archers to fire at the same time. The walls of the fort were about thick and high. The walls of Buhen were crafted with rough stone. The walls of Buhen are unique as most Egyptian fortress walls were constructed with timber and mud-brick. The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under

Lake Nasser Lake Nasser ( ', ) is a large reservoir (water), reservoir in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. It was created by the construction of the Aswan Dam, Aswan High Dam and is one of the List of reservoirs by volume, largest man-made lakes in the wo ...

as a result of the construction of the

Aswan Dam The Aswan Dam, or Aswan High Dam, is one of the world's largest embankment dams, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970. When it was completed, it was the tallest earthen dam in the world, surpassing the Chatuge D ...

in 1964.

Headquarters

At Buhen, the central administrative hub occupied the northern corner of the settlement. Spanning the entirety of block A, its expansive footprint surpassed 1000m².Vogel, in Godlewski and Lajtar, PAM Supplement Series, 423-424; Vogel, Ägyptische Festungen, 128-129;Vogel, in Beinlich, "Die Männer hinter dem König", 155; Vogel, The fortifications of ancient Egypt, 42; Randall-Maciver and Woolley, Buhen, 8-9; W. B. W Emery, in Habachi (ed.), Actes du IIe Symposium, 98; W.B. Emery,
Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Egypt Exploration Society at Buhen
1958-9ʼ, Kush 8(1960), 9.Mumford, G.
Forts, Pharaonic Egypt
" ''The Encyclopedia of Ancient History'' (2013). Positioned directly adjacent to the main wall, the structure boasted a single entrance located in the western corner. Upon entry, one would encounter an anteroom with a solitary pillar. Adjacent to this space lay another anteroom, also featuring a lone pillar, and connected to a staircase and a brief hallway.Gashe, Vicky, and Jacky Finch.
CURRENT RESEARCH IN EGYPTOLOGY 2008
" (2008). Dominating the center of the edifice stood a grand hall adorned with fifteen imposing pillars. Towards the northeast, an additional sizable hall, flanked by six pillars, was accompanied by a slender elongated chamber leading to three smaller rooms.Meanwhile, to the southwest of the central hall, two

diminutive A diminutive is a word obtained by modifying a root word to convey a slighter degree of its root meaning, either to convey the smallness of the object or quality named, or to convey a sense of intimacy or endearment, and sometimes to belittle s ...

chambers resided. One boasted a rectangular layout, while the other featured a square shape and was supported by four pillars. Encircling these chambers and the central hall were three elongated corridors. Ascending the smaller staircase granted access to the upper floor, while the larger staircase ascended to the apex of the main wall.

Archaeological Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...

investigations revealed remnants of decorative paintings and remnants of weaponry within the structure, indicating its repurposing during the New Kingdom period. The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under

as a result of the construction of the

in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, it was excavated by a team led by

Walter Bryan Emery Walter Bryan Emery, CBE, (2 July 1903 – 11 March 1971) was a British Egyptologist. His career was devoted to the excavation of archaeological sites along the Nile Valley.Archaic Egypt (bio), Walter B. Emery, Pelican Books, London, 1963. During ...

Copper production

The investigation into potential copper production activities at Buhen offers valuable insights into ancient

metallurgical Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the ...

practices. Emery's discovery of what he identified as an Old Kingdom copper 'factory' has drawn attention from Egyptologists interested in metalworking techniques.Emery W. B. (1962)
Egypt Exploration Society : a Preliminary Report on the Excavations at Buhen
1960-1. ''Kush: Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service'' ''10 1962 Pages 106-108''. Samples collected from the site, including copper ore fragments, smelted copper metal, slag, crucible pieces, and a small copper artifact, were sent to the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology at

for analysis. El Gayar and Jones conducted the analysis at the Royal School of Mines in London. However, attempts to locate these samples have been unsuccessful. Analysis of a 150 gm ore sample revealed its composition, predominantly consisting of finely dispersed

quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The Atom, atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen Tetrahedral molecular geometry, tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tet ...

(approximately 44 wt%) and malachite, with notable traces of atacamite, a copper chloride. Proposing that atacamite formation occurred during occasional Nile inundations when

malachite Malachite () is a copper Carbonate mineral, carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the chemical formula, formula Basic copper carbonate, Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often for ...

reacted with chlorine ions. Other elements detected through atomic absorption analysis included

zinc Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic tabl ...

calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...

lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...

, and

silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...

, with minimal

iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...

content. Further analysis using an Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer detected an average of 0.18 wt% gold in parts of the ore prepared for

optical microscopy Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultravio ...

. Crucible smelting was suggested as a practice at the site, and the ore's association with nearby gold deposits was speculated. However, recent research challenges Emery's interpretations, with some scholars questioning the site's use for pyro-metallurgical treatment. There are doubts about some of Emery's metallurgical features.

Copper smelting

In 1962, an archaeological expedition to Buhen discovered a copper smelter. Buhen would have been an ideal location to produce small quantities of copper, which requires several local resources: human labor, water, clay, wood, a mineral-based flux, and large quantities of ore. During the time of the Old Kingdom, Buhen could offer almost everything necessary: the nearby Nile provided both water and clay, Egypt had many skilled workers who could be brought to Buhen, and although there is little local timber now remaining, during the Old Kingdom, the higher rainfall would have supported more timber along the Nile and

Wadis Wadi ( ; ) is a river valley or a wet ( ephemeral) riverbed that contains water only when heavy rain occurs. Wadis are located on gently sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts; commonly they begin on the distal portions of alluvial fans and e ...

. The furnace slags found contained iron, indicative of a ferruginous

flux Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications in physics. For transport phe ...

, which requires iron oxide and is abundant throughout the Nile valley. However, not much is known about the sources of the ore. The excavation found copper ores, which analysis showed were initially atacamite and later atacamite containing gold. All the copper deposits recorded in Egypt and Northern Sudan are a long way from Buhen and located to the east of the Nile; this required transportation over long distances and across the river. A large number of andirons were found in Buhen. Andirons were commonly used in Egyptian cooking, but these were associated with copper smelting. Exactly how they were used in the smelting process is not known other than being involved in fire and burning. The copper produced was probably used in the manufacture of household and agricultural tools, including knives and hoes.

Gallery

File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg, Middle Kingdom fortress reconstructed under the New Kingdom . File:Buhen Temple (8625532719).jpg, The Horus temple of Buhen in the

Sudan National Museum The National Museum of Sudan or Sudan National Museum, abbreviated SNM, is a two-story building, constructed in 1955 and established as national museum in 1971. Before its destruction during the Sudanese civil war (2023–present), Sudanese civ ...

File:Buhen3.jpg, A view of the fortress from the north (artist's impression) File:Ägyptisches Museum Leipzig 294.jpg, Funerary stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb, found in Buhen. This stele provided new knowledge of a Nubian ruler, Nedjeh, and suggests that there was some dependency on Nubian kings.

References

Bibliography

BADAWY, ALEXANDER M. “ASKUT: A Middle Kingdom Fortress in Nubia.” ''Archaeology'', vol. 18, no. 2, 1965, pp. 124–31. ''
STOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41667517
Accessed 5 Mar. 2024. Davey, CJ, et al. “Egyptian Middle Kingdom Copper: Analysis of a Crucible from Buhen in the Petrie Museum.” ''UCL Discovery - UCL Discovery'', Apr. 2021
discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124084/
Accessed 3 Mar. 2024. Raulwing, Peter, and Juliet Clutton-Brock. "The Buhen Horse: Fifty Years after Its Discovery (1958–2008)". ''Journal of Egyptian History'' 2.1 (2009): 1-106
https://doi.org/10.1163/187416509X12492786609122
Web. Accessed 3 Mar. 2024. Stanley, Daniel Jean, and Jonathan G. Wingerath. “Clay Mineral Distributions to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: I. Lower River Nile to Delta Sector.” ''Journal of Coastal Research'', vol. 12, no. 4, 1996, pp. 911–29. ''JSTOR''
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4298542
Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

External links

Egyptian Middle Kingdom copper: analysis of a crucible from Buhen in the Petrie Museum

3D Reconstruction of Buhen Fortress

Historic Photographs and 3D Reconstruction Video

Ancient Egypt ~The Submerged Huge Buhen Ruins

Buhen – The Sunken Egyptian Fortress
#

List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities This is a list of known ancient Egyptian towns and cities.
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/. Retrieved on 2016-03-05. T ...

Buhen Fort

Rock Inscriptions of Buhen
{{Castles in Egypt Buildings and structures completed in the 19th century BC Archaeological sites in Egypt Former populated places in Egypt History of Nubia 19th-century BC establishments in Egypt