''Bacillus licheniformis'' is a

bacterium Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among the ...

commonly found in the soil. It is found on bird feathers, especially chest and back plumage, and most often in ground-dwelling birds (like sparrows) and aquatic species (like

duck Duck is the common name for numerous species of waterfowl in the family (biology), family Anatidae. Ducks are generally smaller and shorter-necked than swans and goose, geese, which are members of the same family. Divided among several subfam ...

s). It is a

gram-positive In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall. The Gram stain is ...

mesophilic A mesophile is an organism that grows best in moderate temperature, neither too hot nor too cold, with an optimum growth range from . The optimum growth temperature for these organisms is 37 °C (about 99 °F). The term is mainly applied ...

bacterium. Its optimal growth temperature is around 50 °C, though it can survive at much higher temperatures. The optimal temperature for enzyme secretion is 37 °C. It can exist in a dormant

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual reproduction, sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for biological dispersal, dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores fo ...

form to resist harsh environments, or in a vegetative state when conditions are good. High capacity of secretion of the alkaline

serine protease Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins. Serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active site. They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Serin ...

has made ''B.'' ''licheniformis'' one of the most important bacteria in industrial enzyme production.

Subtilisin Subtilisin is a protease (a protein-digesting enzyme) initially obtained from ''Bacillus subtilis''. Subtilisins belong to subtilases, a group of serine proteases that – like all serine proteases – initiate the nucleophilic attack on the ...

Carlsberg () secreted by ''B. licheniformis'' is used as a detergent protease. It is sold under the name Alcalase by

Novozymes Novozymes A/S was a global biotechnology company headquartered in Bagsværd, outside of Copenhagen, Denmark. The company's focus was the research, development and production of industrial enzymes, microorganisms, and biopharmaceutical ingredie ...

. A small

antisense RNA Antisense RNA (asRNA), also referred to as antisense transcript, natural antisense transcript (NAT) or antisense oligonucleotide, is a single stranded RNA that is complementary to a protein coding messenger RNA (mRNA) with which it hybridizes, and ...

against Subtilisin Carlsberg named BLi_r0872 was discovered in an

RNA-seq RNA-Seq (named as an abbreviation of RNA sequencing) is a technique that uses next-generation sequencing to reveal the presence and quantity of RNA molecules in a biological sample, providing a snapshot of gene expression in the sample, also k ...

based study. It may have a putative impact on protease production and serve as target for strain improvement. Scientists are currently exploring its ability to degrade feathers for agricultural purposes. Feathers contain high amounts of non-digestible

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...

s, but researchers hope that, through fermentation with ''B. licheniformis'', they can use waste feathers to produce cheap and nutritious feather meal to feed livestock. Ecological research is also being done looking at the interaction between plumage colors and ''B. licheniformis'' activity, and the consequences thereof. Feather degrading bacteria may have played an important role in the evolution of molting, and patterns in feather coloration ( Gloger's Rule).

Description

''B. licheniformis'' is a

Gram positive In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall. The Gram stain i ...

, spore-forming, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It was initially named ''Clostridium licheniforme'' by H. Weigmann and renamed ''Bacillus licheniformis'' by Frederick D. Chester. ''B. licheniformis'' displays a variety of colony morphologies, with the rough "licheniform" colonies giving the organism its name. Colonies tend to be cream-colored, but will turn red in the presence of iron in media, most likely as a result of pulcherrimin. ''B. licheniformis'' is found in a wide variety of environments, but especially in soil and in the feathers of birds, where ''B. licheniformis'' degrades

β-keratin Beta-keratin (β-keratin) is a structural protein found in the epidermis of reptiles, birds, and pangolins. Structure Beta-keratins were named due to their composition of stacked beta sheets in the epidermal stratum corneum, distinguishing th ...

. There is evidence that red feathers, with psittacofulvin, are more resistant to degradation.

Applications

Industrial enzymes

Carlsberg, a

secreted by ''B. licheniformis'', is used in laundry detergent formulations due to its ability to perform at high pH levels (optimal activity is between 8.0 and 10.0) and high temperatures ().

Amylase An amylase () is an enzyme that catalysis, catalyses the hydrolysis of starch (Latin ') into sugars. Amylase is present in the saliva of humans and some other mammals, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Foods that contain large ...

s are also synthesized by ''B. licheniformis'' and used for industrial purposes.

Probiotics

''B. licheniformis'' is used as a probiotic in animal feed, where isolates have been shown to prevent disease and promote growth as well as being commercially available. Some isolates have also been found to be probiotic in humans (and are also commercially available), but it's been mentioned that clinical trials have not been performed on many of them yet.

Other applications

''B. licheniformis'' also shows possible applications in bioremediation, biomineralization, and biofuels. The keratinases it produces can be used to digest feather meal into more digestible components, though no such product has been commercialized as of Feb 2025.

Natural genetic transformation

''B. licheniformis'' is naturally competent for

genetic transformation In molecular biology and genetics, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane(s). For transformation to t ...

. Natural genetic transformation is a sexual process involving DNA transfer from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium, and the integration of the donor sequence into the recipient genome by

homologous recombination Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which genetic information is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of double-stranded or single-stranded nucleic acids (usually DNA as in Cell (biology), cellular organi ...

Pathogenicity and food spoilage

''Bacillus licheniformis'' has been found to cause infection in several cases of immunocompromised patients. ''B. licheniformis'' has been found to be the causative agent of ventriculitis, ophthalmitis, bacteremia, peritonitis, and endocarditis. ''B. licheniformis'' is also known to contaminate food, especially dairy, as well as causing "ropiness" in bread. There is evidence that contamination may be a result of a toxin.

Identification

Below is a list of differential techniques and results that can help to identify ''Bacillus licheniformis'' from other bacteria and ''Bacillus'' species. * Anaerobic Growth: Positive * Voges Proskauer test: Positive * Acid produced from ** D-glucose: Positive ** L-arabinose: Positive ** D-mannitol: Positive * Starch

hydrolysis Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution reaction, substitution, elimination reaction, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water ...

: Positive * Nitrate reduction: Positive * Degradation of

tyrosine -Tyrosine or tyrosine (symbol Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine is one of the 20 standard amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. It is a conditionally essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is ...

: Negative * Growth at ** 10 °C: Negative ** 50 °C: Positive ** 55 °C: Positive * Utilization of

citrate Citric acid is an organic compound with the formula . It is a colorless weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relati ...

: Positive

References

External links

Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of a Feather Degrading Bacteria, Williams et al., 1990

Bacterial Degradation of Black and White Feathers, Goldstein et al., 2003

Complete genome of Bacillus licheniformis ATCC14580 - publication

Bacillus licheniformis genomeType strain of ''Bacillus licheniformis'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bacillus Licheniformis licheniformis Food microbiology