Asclepius (; grc-gre, Ἀσκληπιός ''Asklēpiós'' ; la, Aesculapius) is a hero and god of
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...
in ancient
Greek religion and
mythology. He is the son of
Apollo
Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label= Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label ...
and
Coronis, or
Arsinoe, or of Apollo alone. Asclepius represents the healing aspect of the medical arts; his daughters, the "Asclepiades", are:
Hygieia ("Health, Healthiness"),
Iaso (from ἴασις "healing, recovering, recuperation", the goddess of recuperation from illness),
Aceso (from ἄκεσις "healing", the goddess of the healing process),
Aegle (the goddess of good health) and
Panacea (the goddess of universal remedy). He has several sons as well. He was associated with the Roman/Etruscan god
Vediovis and the Egyptian
Imhotep. He shared with Apollo the epithet ''Paean'' ("the Healer"). The
rod of Asclepius, a snake-entwined staff, (similar to the
caduceus) remains a symbol of medicine today. Those physicians and attendants who served this god were known as the
Therapeutae of Asclepius
Therapeutae (plural) is Latin from the Greek plural ''Therapeutai'' (Θεραπευταί). The term ''therapeutes'' means one who is attendant to the gods although the term, and the related adjective ''therapeutikos'' carry in later texts the m ...
.
Etymology
The etymology of the name is unknown. In his revised version of
Frisk's ''Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' (''Greek Etymological Dictionary''),
R.S.P. Beekes gives this summary of the different attempts:
:"H. Grégoire (with R. Goossens and M. Mathieu) in ''Asklépios, Apollon Smintheus et Rudra'' 1949 (Mém. Acad. Roy. de Belgique. Cl. d. lettres. 2. sér. 45), explains the name as "the mole-hero", connecting '
mole
Mole (or Molé) may refer to:
Animals
* Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America
* Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...
' and refers to the resemblance of the Tholos in
Epidauros
Epidaurus ( gr, Ἐπίδαυρος) was a small city (''polis'') in ancient Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula at the Saronic Gulf. Two modern towns bear the name Epidavros: '' Palaia Epidavros'' and '' Nea Epidavros''. Since 2010 they belong to ...
and the
building of a mole. (Thus
Puhvel, ''Comp. Mythol''. 1987, 135.) But the variants of Asklepios and those of the word for "mole" do not agree.
:The name is typical for Pre-Greek words; apart from minor variations ( for , for ) we find (a well known variation;
Fur. 335–339) followed by or , i.e. a
voiced velar (without ) or a
voiceless velar (or an
aspirated one: we know that there was no distinction between the three in the
substr. language) with a . I think that the renders an original
affricate, which (prob. as ) was lost before the (in Greek the group is rare, and certainly before another consonant).
:
Szemerényi's etymology (''
JHS'' 94, 1974, 155) from
Hitt. ''assula(a)-'' "well-being" and ''piya-'' "give" cannot be correct, as it does not explain the
velar
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the velum).
Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relatively extensive a ...
."
Beekes suggested a
Pre-Greek proto-form ''*At
yklap-''.
His name may mean "to cut open" from a story about his birth.
Mythology
Birth
Asclepius was the son of Apollo and, according to the earliest accounts, a mortal woman named Coronis. When she displayed infidelity by sleeping with a mortal named
Ischys In Greek mythology, Ischys (Ancient Greek: Ἰσχύς means 'strength') was the son of Elatus and Hippea.
Mythology
Ischys had an affair with the Thessalian princess Coronis, one of Apollo's lovers, who was at that time pregnant with the god's ...
, Apollo realised this with his prophetic powers and killed Ischys. Coronis was killed by
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified wit ...
for being unfaithful to Apollo and was laid out on a funeral pyre to be consumed, but Apollo rescued the child by cutting him from Coronis' womb.
According to Delphian tradition, Asclepius was born in the temple of Apollo, with
Lachesis acting as a midwife and Apollo relieving the pains of Coronis. Apollo named the child after Coronis' nickname, Aegle.
Phoenician tradition maintains that Asclepius was born of Apollo without any woman involved.
According to the Roman version, Apollo, having learned about Coronis' betrayal with the mortal
Ischys In Greek mythology, Ischys (Ancient Greek: Ἰσχύς means 'strength') was the son of Elatus and Hippea.
Mythology
Ischys had an affair with the Thessalian princess Coronis, one of Apollo's lovers, who was at that time pregnant with the god's ...
through his raven, killed her with his arrows. Before breathing her last, she revealed to Apollo that she was pregnant with his child. He repented his actions and unsuccessfully tried to save her. At last, he removed their son safely from her belly before she was consumed by the fire.
In yet another version, Coronis who was already pregnant with Apollo's child, had to accompany her father to
Peloponnesos. She had kept her pregnancy hidden from her father. In
Epidaurus, she bore a son and exposed him on a mountain called ''Tittheion'' (from τίτθη "wet nurse", τιτθεύω "to suckle, breastfeed"). The child was given milk by one of the goats that pastured about the mountain, and was guarded by the watch-dog of the herd. Aresthanas, the owner of goats and the guard dogs found the child. As he came near, he saw lightning that flashed from the child, and thinking of it to be a sign of divine, he left the child alone. Asclepius was later taken by Apollo.
Education and adventures
Apollo named the rescued baby "Asclepius" and reared him for a while and taught him many things about medicine. However, like his half-brother,
Aristaeus, Asclepius had his formal education under the
centaur Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron ( ; also Cheiron or Kheiron; ) was held to be the superlative centaur amongst his brethren since he was called the "wisest and justest of all the centaurs".
Biography
Chiron was notable throughout Greek mythology ...
who instructed him in the art of medicine.
It is said that in return for some kindness rendered by Asclepius, a snake licked Asclepius's ears clean and taught him secret knowledge (to the Greeks snakes were sacred beings of wisdom, healing, and resurrection). Asclepius bore a rod wreathed with a snake, which became associated with healing. Another version states that when Asclepius (or in another myth
Polyidus
In Greek mythology, Polyidus ( grc, Πολύειδος ''Polúeidos'', "seeing many things"; also Polyeidus), son of Coeranus, was a famous seer from Corinth.
Family
Polyidus was a descendant of another renowned seer, Melampus. Given that Mela ...
) was commanded to restore the life of Glaucus, he was confined in a secret prison. While pondering on what he should do, a snake crept near his staff. Lost in his thoughts, Asclepius unknowingly killed it by hitting it again and again with his staff. Later, another snake came there with a herb in its mouth, and placed it on the head of dead snake, which soon came back to life. Seeing this, Asclepius used the same herb, which brought Glaucus back. A species of non-venomous pan-Mediterranean serpent, the
Aesculapian snake (''Zamenis longissimus'') is named for the god.
He was originally called Hepius but received his popular name of Asclepius after he cured Ascles, ruler of Epidaurus who suffered an incurable ailment in his eyes.
Tzetzes
John Tzetzes ( grc-gre, Ἰωάννης Τζέτζης, Iōánnēs Tzétzēs; c. 1110, Constantinople – 1180, Constantinople) was a Byzantine poet and grammarian who is known to have lived at Constantinople in the 12th century.
He was able to pr ...
, ''Chiliades'
10.49, p. 712–714
/ref> Asclepius became so proficient as a healer that he surpassed both Chiron and his father, Apollo. Asclepius was therefore able to evade death and to bring others back to life from the brink of death and beyond. This caused an excessive abundance of human beings, and Zeus resorted to killing him to maintain balance in the numbers of the human population.
At some point, Asclepius was among those who took part in the Calydonian Boar hunt.
Marriage and family
Asclepius was married to Epione, with whom he had five daughters: Hygieia, Panacea, Aceso, Iaso, and Aegle, and three sons: Machaon, Podaleirios and Telesphoros. He also sired a son, Aratus
Aratus (; grc-gre, Ἄρατος ὁ Σολεύς; c. 315 BC/310 BC240) was a Greek didactic poet. His major extant work is his hexameter poem ''Phenomena'' ( grc-gre, Φαινόμενα, ''Phainómena'', "Appearances"; la, Phaenomena), the ...
, with Aristodama.
Death and resurrection as a god
Asclepius once started bringing back to life the dead people like Tyndareus, Capaneus, Glaucus, Hymenaeus, Lycurgus and others. Others say he brought Hippolytus back from the dead on Artemis' request, and accepted gold for it. It is the only mention of Asclepius resurrecting the dead. In all other accounts he is said to use his skills simply as a physician.
However, Hades accused Asclepius for stealing his subjects and complained to his brother Zeus
Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label= genitive Boeotian Aeolic and Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label= genitive el, Δίας, ''Días'' () is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek reli ...
about it. According to others, Zeus was afraid that Asclepius would teach the art of resurrection to other humans as well. So he killed Asclepius with his thunderbolt. This angered Apollo who in turn killed the Cyclopes
In Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, the Cyclopes ( ; el, Κύκλωπες, ''Kýklōpes'', "Circle-eyes" or "Round-eyes"; singular Cyclops ; , ''Kýklōps'') are giant one-eyed creatures. Three groups of Cyclopes can be distinguish ...
who made the thunderbolts for Zeus. For this act, Zeus banished Apollo from Olympus and commanded him to serve Admetus
In Greek mythology, Admetus (; Ancient Greek: ''Admetos'' means 'untamed, untameable') was a king of Pherae in Thessaly.
Biography
Admetus succeeded his father Pheres after whom the city was named. His mother was identified as Periclymene ...
, King of Thessaly, for a year. After Asclepius's death, Zeus placed his body among the stars as the constellation Ophiuchus
Ophiuchus () is a large constellation straddling the celestial equator. Its name comes from the Ancient Greek (), meaning "serpent-bearer", and it is commonly represented as a man grasping a snake. The serpent is represented by the constella ...
("the Serpent Holder").
Later, however, upon Apollo's request, Zeus resurrected Asclepius as a god and gave him a place on Olympus.
Sacred places and practices
The most ancient and the most prominent asclepeion (or healing temple) according to the geographer of the 1st century BC, Strabo, was situated in Trikala
Trikala ( el, Τρίκαλα; rup, Trikolj) is a city in northwestern Thessaly, Greece, and the capital of the Trikala regional unit. The city straddles the Lithaios river, which is a tributary of Pineios. According to the Greek National Stati ...
. The 1st century AD Pool of Bethesda
The Pool of Bethesda is a pool in Jerusalem known from the New Testament account of Jesus miraculously healing a paralysed man, from the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John, where it is described as being near the Sheep Gate, surrounded by f ...
, described in the Gospel of John, chapter 5, was found by archaeologists in 1964 to be part of an asclepeion.[An archaeological diagram of the layout – the diagram displayed at the location itself – is visible at this link](_blank)
.Jerome Murphy-O'Connor
Jerome Murphy-O'Connor (born 10 April 1935, Cork City, Ireland – died 11 November 2013, Jerusalem) was a Dominican priest, a leading authority on St. Paul, and a Professor of New Testament at the École Biblique in Jerusalem, a position ...
, ''The Holy Land'', (2008), page 29 One of the most famous temples of Asclepius was at Epidaurus in north-eastern Peloponnese, dated to the fourth century BC.[Edelstein, Ludwig and Emma Edelstein. ''Asclepius: a Collection and Interpretation of the Testimonies''. Vol. 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1998. p. 243] Another famous asclepeion was built approximately a century later on the island of Kos
Kos or Cos (; el, Κως ) is a Greek island, part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Kos is the third largest island of the Dodecanese by area, after Rhodes and Karpathos; it has a population of 36,986 (2021 census), ...
, where Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history o ...
, the legendary "father of medicine", may have begun his career. Other asclepieia were situated in Gortys
Gortyna ( grc, Γόρτυνα; also known as Gortyn (Γορτύν)) was a town of ancient Crete which appears in the Homeric poems under the form of Γορτύν; but afterwards became usually Gortyna (Γόρτυνα). According to Stephanus of ...
(in Arcadia), and Pergamum
Pergamon or Pergamum ( or ; grc-gre, Πέργαμον), also referred to by its modern Greek form Pergamos (), was a rich and powerful ancient Greek city in Mysia. It is located from the modern coastline of the Aegean Sea on a promontory on th ...
in Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
.
From the fifth century BC onwards, the cult of Asclepius grew very popular and pilgrims flocked to his healing temples ( Asclepieia) to be cured of their ills. Ritual purification would be followed by offerings or sacrifices to the god (according to means), and the supplicant would then spend the night in the holiest part of the sanctuary– the abaton (or adyton). Any dreams or visions would be reported to a priest who would prescribe the appropriate therapy by a process of interpretation. Some healing temples also used sacred dogs to lick the wounds of sick petitioners.[Farnell, Chapter 10, "The Cult of Asklepios" (pp. 234–279)] In honor of Asclepius, a particular type of non-venomous snake was often used in healing rituals, and these snakes— the Aesculapian Snake
The Aesculapian snake (now ''Zamenis longissimus'', previously ''Elaphe longissima''), is a species of nonvenomous snake native to Europe, a member of the Colubrinae subfamily of the family Colubridae. Growing up to in length, it is among th ...
s— slithered around freely on the floor in dormitories where the sick and injured slept. These snakes were introduced at the founding of each new temple of Asclepius throughout the classical world.
The original Hippocratic Oath began with the invocation "I swear by Apollo the Physician and by Asclepius and by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the gods ...".
''Epidauria'' (τὰ Ἐπιδαύρια) was a festival at Athens in honour of Asclepius.
Some later religious movements claimed links to Asclepius. In the 2nd century AD the controversial miracle-worker Alexander claimed that his god Glycon
Glycon ( grc, Γλύκων ''Glýkōn'', : ''Glýkōnos''), also spelled Glykon, was an ancient snake god. He had a large and influential cult within the Roman Empire in the 2nd century, with contemporary satirist Lucian providing the primary ...
, a snake with a "head of linen"[Lucian, ''Alexander the False Prophet'' (trans A.M. Harmon) (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1936), Lucian, vol IV. Accessible online at http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm] was an incarnation of Asclepius. The Greek language rhetorician
Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
and satirist
This is an incomplete list of writers, cartoonists and others known for involvement in satire – humorous social criticism. They are grouped by era and listed by year of birth. Included is a list of modern satires.
Under Contemporary, 1930-196 ...
Lucian produced the work Alexander the False Prophet
Alexander of Abonoteichus ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Ἀβωνοτειχίτης ''Aléxandros ho Abōnoteichítēs''), also called Alexander the Paphlagonian ( CE), was a Greek mystic and oracle, and the founder of the Glycon cult that bri ...
to denounce the swindler for future generations. He described Alexander as having a character "made up of lying, trickery, perjury, and malice; t wasfacile, audacious, venturesome, diligent in the execution of its schemes, plausible, convincing, masking as good, and wearing an appearance absolutely opposite to its purpose." In Rome, the College of Aesculapius and Hygia was an association ''(collegium
A (plural ), or college, was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity. Following the passage of the ''Lex Julia'' during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their rea ...
)'' that served as a burial society and dining club that also participated in the Imperial cult
An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may ...
.
The botanical genus '' Asclepias'' (commonly known as milkweed) is named after him and includes the medicinal plant ''A. tuberosa'' or "Pleurisy root".
Asclepius was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 10,000 drachmas banknote of 1995–2001.
At the city of Miletus, archaeologists discovered a cave under the city's theatre which was associated with Asclepius cult.The Ancient City of Miletos's "Sacred Cave" Opened to Visitors
/ref>
See also
* Rod of Asclepius
* Darrhon
* 1027 Aesculapia
Notes
References
Primary sources
* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.Greek text available from the same website
* Apollonius Rhodius, ''Argonautica'' translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912
Online version at the Topos Text Project.
* Apollonius Rhodius, ''Argonautica''. George W. Mooney. London. Longmans, Green. 1912
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8
Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2''. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888-1890
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies
Online version at the Topos Text Project.
* Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
, ''The Iliad'' with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
* Homer, ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920.
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.Greek text available from the same website
* Lycophron, ''The Alexandra'' translated by Alexander William Mair. Loeb Classical Library Volume 129. London: William Heinemann, 1921
Online version at the Topos Text Project.
* Lycophron, ''Alexandra'' translated by A.W. Mair. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
* Marcus Tullius Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
, ''Nature of the Gods from the Treatises of M.T. Cicero'' translated by Charles Duke Yonge (1812-1891), Bohn edition of 1878
Online version at the Topos Text Project.
* Marcus Tullius Cicero, ''De Natura Deorum.'' O. Plasberg. Leipzig. Teubner. 1917
Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Pausanias Pausanias ( el, Παυσανίας) may refer to:
*Pausanias of Athens, lover of the poet Agathon and a character in Plato's ''Symposium''
*Pausanias the Regent, Spartan general and regent of the 5th century BC
* Pausanias of Sicily, physician of t ...
, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
* Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.'' ''3 vols''. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Pindar
Pindar (; grc-gre, Πίνδαρος , ; la, Pindarus; ) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar ...
, ''Odes'' translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
* Pindar, ''The Odes of Pindar'' including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937
Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Fasti'' translated by James G. Frazer
Online version at the Topos Text Project.
* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Fasti.'' Sir James George Frazer. London; Cambridge, MA. William Heinemann Ltd.; Harvard University Press. 1933
Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library
* Tzetzes, John, ''Book of Histories,'' Book IX-X translated by Jonathan Alexander from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826
Online version at theoi.com
Secondary sources
* Edelstein, Ludwig and Emma Edelstein. ''Asclepius: Collection and Interpretation of the Testimonies'', Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1945.
* von Ehrenheim, Hedvig. ''Greek Incubation Rituals in Classical and Hellenistic Times. Kernos. Supplément, 29.'' Liège: Presses Universitaires de Liège, 2015.
* Farnell, Lewis Richard. ''Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality'', (Oxford Clarendon Press,1921).
* Grimal, Pierre
''The Dictionary of Classical Mythology''
Wiley-Blackwell, 1996,
"Asclepius" pp. 62–63
* Hart, Gerald D. MD. ''Asclepius: The God of Medicine'' (Royal Society of Medicine Press, 2000)
* Kool, S. "The Soother of Evil Pains: Asclepius and Freud." ''Akroterion'' 60, 2015, pp. 13–32.
* LiDonnici, Lynn R. ''The Epidaurian Miracle Inscriptions: Text, Translation, and Commentary.'' Atlanta: Scholars, 1995.
* Mitchell-Boyask, Robin, ''Plague and the Athenian Imagination: Drama, History and the Cult of Asclepius'', Cambridge University Press, 2008, .
* Oberhelman, Steven M. (ed.), ''Dreams, Healing, and Medicine in Greece: From Antiquity to the Present.'' Farnham; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2013.
* Renberg, Gil H. "Public and Private Places of Worship in the Cult of Asclepius at Rome". ''Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome'', 51/52, 2006, pp. 87–172.
* Riethmüller, Jürgen W. ''Asklepios : Heiligtümer und Kulte'', Heidelberg, Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte, 2005,
*
* Wickkiser, Bronwen. ''Asklepios, Medicine, and the Politics of Healing in Fifth-century Greece: Between Craft and Cult''. JHU Press, 2008.
External links
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database
(c. 100 images of Aesculapius)
{{Authority control
Medicine gods
Health gods
Greek gods
Greek mythological heroes
Mythological Greek physicians
Argonauts
Children of Apollo
Demigods in classical mythology
Deeds of Zeus
Metamorphoses characters
Characters in Greek mythology
Ancient Greek medicine
Snakes in religion
Kourotrophoi