Archduke Joseph Anton Johann of Austria (, , 9 March 1776 – 13 January 1847) was the 103rd and penultimate

palatine of Hungary The Palatine of Hungary ( hu, nádor or , german: Landespalatin, la, palatinus regni Hungariae) was the highest-ranking office in the Kingdom of Hungary from the beginning of the 11th century to 1848. Initially, Palatines were repres ...

who served for more than 50 years from 1796 to 1847, after he had been appointed

governor A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...

in 1795. The latter half of his service coincided with the

Hungarian Reform Era The Hungarian Reform Era was a period of Hungarian history which led to the awakening of the Hungarian national identity after 150 years of Ottoman and 300 years of Habsburg rule. Its beginning was marked by the reconvening of the Diet of Hungary o ...

, and he mediated between Francis I, King of Hungary and the

Hungarian nobility The Hungarian nobility consisted of a privileged group of individuals, most of whom owned landed property, in the Kingdom of Hungary. Initially, a diverse body of people were described as noblemen, but from the late 12th century only high ...

, representing the country's interests in

Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...

. He played a prominent role in the development of Pest as a cultural and economic centre, and the neoclassical buildings constructed on his initiative define the modern appearance of the city. The

landscaping Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land, including the following: # Living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly called gardening, the art and craft of growing plants with a goal ...

of the

City Park An urban park or metropolitan park, also known as a municipal park (North America) or a public park, public open space, or municipal gardens ( UK), is a park in cities and other incorporated places that offer recreation and green space to resi ...

Budapest Budapest (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Hungary. It is the ninth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits and the second-largest city on the Danube river; the city has an estimated population ...

and

Margaret Island Margaret Island ( hu, Margitsziget ; german: Margareteninsel; tr, Kızadası) is a long island, wide, ( in area) in the middle of the Danube in central Budapest, Hungary. The island is mostly covered by landscape parks, and is a popular recrea ...

also happened under his supervision. In the wider country, he supported public education, technical higher education,

the arts The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both ...

, the construction of

railroads Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport that transfers passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, which are incorporated in tracks. In contrast to road transport, where the vehicles run on a prep ...

, and the work of various progressive-thinking societies and associations. He made great donations towards the establishment of the

Hungarian National Museum The Hungarian National Museum ( hu, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum) was founded in 1802 and is the national museum for the history, art, and archaeology of Hungary, including areas not within Hungary's modern borders, such as Transylvania; it is not to ...

, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the

National Széchényi Library The National Széchényi Library ( hu, Országos Széchényi Könyvtár) (OSZK) is a library in Budapest, Hungary, located in Buda Castle. It is one of two Hungarian national libraries, the other being University of Debrecen Library. History The ...

. He was an archduke of

Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...

and a

prince A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. T ...

of Bohemia,

Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...

, and

Tuscany it, Toscano (man) it, Toscana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Citizenship , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = Italian , demogra ...

as the son of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the

House of Habsburg-Lorraine The House of Habsburg-Lorraine (german: Haus Habsburg-Lothringen) originated from the marriage in 1736 of Francis III, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, and Maria Theresa of Austria, later successively Queen of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary, Queen of C ...

descends from him. In the Imperial Army, and later in the

Austro-Hungarian Army The Austro-Hungarian Army (, literally "Ground Forces of the Austro-Hungarians"; , literally "Imperial and Royal Army") was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint arm ...

, he bore the rank of ''

Feldmarschall ''Generalfeldmarschall'' (from Old High German ''marahscalc'', "marshal, stable master, groom"; en, general field marshal, field marshal general, or field marshal; ; often abbreviated to ''Feldmarschall'') was a rank in the armies of several L ...

.''

Early life and education

Childhood in Tuscany

Archduke ''Joseph Anton Johann Baptist'' of Austria was born on 9 March 1776 in

Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany Regions of Italy, region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilan ...

, Grand Duchy of Tuscany as the ninth child and seventh son of Leopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1747–1792) and his wife, born ''

Infanta ''Infante'' (, ; f. ''infanta''), also anglicised as Infant or translated as Prince, is the title and rank given in the Iberian kingdoms of Spain (including the predecessor kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and León) and Portugal to th ...

Maria Luisa of Spain Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain (Spanish: ''María Luisa'', German: ''Maria Ludovika''; 24 November 1745 – 15 May 1792) was Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the spouse of Leopold II, ...

(1745–1792). He had a total of 15 siblings, two of whom

died in infancy Infant mortality is the death of young children under the age of 1. This death toll is measured by the infant mortality rate (IMR), which is the probability of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births. The under-five morta ...

. Through his father, he was a grandson of Maria Theresa, Holy Roman Dowager Empress,

Queen Regnant A queen regnant (plural: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank and title to a king, who reigns '' suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a "kingdom"; as opposed to a queen consort, who is the wife of a reigni ...

of Bohemia and

(1717–1780). The family lived in the

Pitti Palace The Palazzo Pitti (), in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy. It is situated on the south side of the River Arno, a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio. The core of the present ...

in Florence, but spent summers in the Villa del Poggio Imperiale ("Villa of the Imperial Hill") or the Villa di Poggio a Cajano and some winters in Pisa. The grand duchal couple created a warm and intimate environment for their children, whom they raised according to the modern principles of the age, taking special care of their diet and regular exercise. Their education plan was a mix of old-fashioned courtly instruction focused on etiquette and royal duty and the newer ideas of John Locke and

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...

. The children were entrusted to an all-female staff until the age of 4, composed of

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) ** Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...

Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...

-, and French-speaking women who were only allowed to speak in their respective mother tongues to the children. Instruction in reading and writing started at the age of 3, and regular language classes a year later. In accordance with the will of the children's grandmother, Empress Dowager Maria Theresa, who monitored their development closely from

Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...

, the family's life revolved around religion and the strict observance of all

Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

rituals. The children listened to

religious text Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual pr ...

s while getting ready in the morning, attended

mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different eleme ...

, studied the catechism, and prayed the rosary every day. It was also Maria Theresa who appointed the young archdukes' ''ajo'' ("governor"),

Count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...

(1736–1806), who was helped by the ''sottoajo'' ("under-governor"), Marquess Major Federigo Manfredini, and

tutors Tutoring is private academic support, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects. A tutor, formally also called an academic tutor, is a person who provides ...

in all subjects. It was the shared aim of Grand Duke Leopold and Count Colloredo to teach the children to lead a simple life, be humble, dutiful, and devoted to the well-being of their subjects. In their academic pursuits, they were taught to be inquisitive and independent. There were some disagreements between the grand duke and the ''ajo'', as the former wanted his children to lead as free and unrestricted lives as possible, while the latter expected them to be graceful, serious, and disciplined beyond their years. Archduke Joseph himself was only under Colloredo's guidance for two and a half years, as he left with his eldest brother, Archduke Francis (1768–1835) when his education continued in Vienna from 1782. Then, Major Manfredini was promoted to be the ''ajo'', who allowed his charges more freedom. Sigismund Anton Graf von Hohenwart

The preparatory stage of Joseph's education lasted until the age of 9, by when he had learned to speak and write in German, French, Italian, and

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

. He received the traditional education Austrian archdukes usually did, learning etiquette and ''conduite'' (the behaviour expected in

high society High society, sometimes simply society, is the behavior and lifestyle of people with the highest levels of wealth and social status. It includes their related affiliations, social events and practices. Upscale social clubs were open to men based ...

genealogy Genealogy () is the study of families, family history, and the tracing of their lineages. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kin ...

geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...

history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...

ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...

law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...

natural law Natural law ( la, ius naturale, ''lex naturalis'') is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independently of positive law (the express enacte ...

political science Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and la ...

, and mathematics. Joseph had a preference for history,

archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landsca ...

, and natural history, and was not as apt in mathematics. It was important for his parents that all of their children learned some form of

manual labour Manual labour (in Commonwealth English, manual labor in American English) or manual work is physical work done by humans, in contrast to labour by machines and working animals. It is most literally work done with the hands (the word ''manual ...

, and Joseph was instructed in gardening,

botany Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...

, and

horticulture Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology, and business of plant cultivation. It includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and no ...

. He learned the

binomial nomenclature In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...

and

taxonomy Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...

of over 6000 plants. The teacher who had the greatest impact on the children was Count Sigismund Anton von Hohenwarth (1730–1820), an ex- Jesuite who later became Prince-Archbishop of Vienna. His pedagogical philosophy was based on Enlightenment ideas, and he taught the archdukes that a person's true vocation was to strive for the happiness of themselves and others, which could only be achieved in a society. He analysed with them examples of good and bad statesmanship, focusing on the importance of institutions,

legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to ...

education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...

, the

science Science is a systematic endeavor that Scientific method, builds and organizes knowledge in the form of Testability, testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earli ...

s, the arts, and different aspects of the

economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...

. He provided them with a foundation of calm and firm determination, and taught them to objectively assess all matters.

Youth in Vienna

Archduke Joseph's father, Grand Duke Leopold was

heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question. ...

to the thrones of his brother, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, who had no children. When he died in 1790, Leopold and his family moved to Vienna, where Joseph and his brothers arrived on 13 May. With his approaching 15th birthday, the final, three-year stage of his education started, focused on military training and

, including subjects such as politics, investigative history, and law, which he learned from ''

Hofrat ''Geheimrat'' was the title of the highest advising officials at the Imperial, royal or princely courts of the Holy Roman Empire, who jointly formed the ''Geheimer Rat'' reporting to the ruler. The term remained in use during subsequent monarchic r ...

'' ("Court Councillor") (1751–1828). He and his brothers travelled a lot and inspected different institutions, recording their experiences in a

diary A diary is a written or audiovisual record with discrete entries arranged by date reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. Diaries have traditionally been handwritten but are now also often digital. A personal ...

First visit to Pest-Buda

In 1792, 16-year-old Joseph lost both of his parents in the span of 3 months, and his eldest brother, Francis became emperor-king. Joseph accompanied him to his coronations in

Frankfurt Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , " Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located on it ...

Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and List of cities in the Czech Republic, largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 milli ...

, and Buda, where he spent 27 days. This was his first visit in the cities, and he went to see the ,

botanical garden A botanical garden or botanic gardenThe terms ''botanic'' and ''botanical'' and ''garden'' or ''gardens'' are used more-or-less interchangeably, although the word ''botanic'' is generally reserved for the earlier, more traditional gardens, an ...

, and natural history collection of the Royal University of Pest (today Eötvös Loránd University). He met with the leaders of the country, spending the most time with the prince-primate, (1727–1799), prince-archbishop of Esztergom, but also seeing

Judge Royal The judge royal, also justiciar,Rady 2000, p. 49. chief justiceSegeš 2002, p. 202. or Lord Chief JusticeFallenbüchl 1988, p. 145. (german: Oberster Landesrichter,Fallenbüchl 1988, p. 72. hu, országbíró,Zsoldos 2011, p. 26. sk, krajinsk� ...

Count (1753–1826) and Chancellor Count (1735–1816). He preferred Pest to Buda.

Visit to the Austrian Netherlands

In 1794, Joseph went on his second trip, this time to the Austrian Nehterlands, which the Habsburg monarchy had temporarily regained during the

French Revolutionary Wars The French Revolutionary Wars (french: Guerres de la Révolution française) were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Britain, Austria, Prussia ...

(1792–1802). After being present at his brother's swearing-in in

Brussels Brussels (french: Bruxelles or ; nl, Brussel ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) (french: link=no, Région de Bruxelles-Capitale; nl, link=no, Bruss ...

, he studied the culture and economy of the country. From 14 April to 31 May, he was on the

battlefield A battlefield, battleground, or field of battle is the location of a present or historic battle involving ground warfare. It is commonly understood to be limited to the point of contact between opposing forces, though battles may involve troops ...

and witnessed one minor win and multiple losses. He always analysed the tactics of both the Imperial Army and the

French Revolutionary Army The French Revolutionary Army (french: Armée révolutionnaire française) was the French land force that fought the French Revolutionary Wars from 1792 to 1804. These armies were characterised by their revolutionary fervour, their poor equipme ...

, and drew caricatures of imperial military leaders, especially

Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld en, Francis Frederick Anthony , house = , father = Ernest Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld , mother = Princess Sophie Antoinette of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , birth_date = , birth_place = Coburg, ...

(1750–1806). Alexander Leopold Habsburg 1772 1795 Palatin

Death of Archduke Alexander Leopold

When Joseph's father became king of Hungary in 1790, he re-established the office of

palatine A palatine or palatinus (in Latin; plural ''palatini''; cf. derivative spellings below) is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times.

('')'', which had been vacant since 1765. The

Diet of Hungary The Diet of Hungary or originally: Parlamentum Publicum / Parlamentum Generale ( hu, Országgyűlés) became the supreme legislative institution in the medieval kingdom of Hungary from the 1290s, and in its successor states, Royal Hungary and ...

elected one of his younger sons, fourth-born Archduke Alexander Leopold. In 1795, he uncovered and repressed a

conspiracy A conspiracy, also known as a plot, is a secret plan or agreement between persons (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder or treason, especially with political motivation, while keeping their agre ...

by the led by

Ignác Martinovics Ignác Martinovics ( sh, Ignjat Martinović, Игњат Мартиновић; 20 July 1755 – 20 May 1795) was a Hungarian scholar, chemist, philosopher, writer, secret agent, Freemason and a leader of the Hungarian Jacobin movement. He was ...

(1755–1795). He joined his family for a holiday in the

Laxenburg castles Laxenburg castles are imperial palaces and castles outside Vienna, in the town of Laxenburg owned in equal parts by Vienna and Lower Austria.Archduchess Amalia (1780–1798) with a display of

fireworks Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. They are most commonly used in fireworks displays (also called a fireworks show or pyrotechnics), combining a large number of devices ...

on her

name day In Christianity, a name day is a tradition in many countries of Europe and the Americas, among other parts of Christendom. It consists of celebrating a day of the year that is associated with one's baptismal name, which is normatively that of a ...

. An enthusiastic

pyrotechnician Pyrotechnicians are people who are responsible for the safe storage, handling, and functioning of pyrotechnics and pyrotechnic devices. Although the term is generally used in reference to individuals who operate pyrotechnics in the entertainment ...

, he prepared the explosives himself. On 10 July, the day of the planned display, between 12 and 1 pm, a flammable material caught fire, causing all of the prepared rockets and the remaining

gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...

to explode. His brother Charles rushed to the rescue with servants, but they struggled to break down the door. This delay was what probably led to Alexander Leopold's death. He was found lying

unconscious Unconscious may refer to: Physiology * Unconsciousness, the lack of consciousness or responsiveness to people and other environmental stimuli Psychology * Unconscious mind, the mind operating well outside the attention of the conscious mind a ...

on the floor, his neck, back, and arms covered in

burn A burn is an injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ultraviolet radiation (like sunburn). Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids (called scalding), solids, or fire. Burns occur ma ...

s from his clothes that had caught fire. He soon regained conscience and lived for another 40 hours in terrible agony, before passing away on 12 July.

Governor of Hungary

Background

The death of Alexander Leopold was greatly mourned by progressive Hungarian nobles, who had hoped that he would help them establish a

constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...

Conspiracy theories A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy by sinister and powerful groups, often political in motivation, when other explanations are more probable.Additional sources: * * * * The term has a nega ...

emerged, claiming that the late palatine had wanted to seize the crown for himself with the help of Judge Royal , and the Viennese court had him murdered for this reason. Count , and '' főispán'' of Békés and Ugocsa Counties told the king that it would be wise to allow for the election of another member of the imperial-royal family to calm tensions.

Moson County Moson (German: Wieselburg, Slovak: Mošon) was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary, situated mostly on the right (south) side of the Danube river. Its territory is now divided between Austria and Hungary, except a sma ...

proposed Albert, Duke of Teschen (1738–1822), the king's uncle-in-law, who had served as

of Hungary from 1765 to 1781, others would have preferred

Archduke Charles Archduke Charles Louis John Joseph Laurentius of Austria, Duke of Teschen (german: link=no, Erzherzog Karl Ludwig Johann Josef Lorenz von Österreich, Herzog von Teschen; 5 September 177130 April 1847) was an Austrian field-marshal, the third s ...

who became popular with his military successes in the French Revolutionary Wars, and Count Teleki himself suggested Joseph. Although on 18 July King Francis asked for more time to prepare an election, on the 20th he appointed Joseph governor of Hungary. The appointment of a governor instead of a palatine was seen as a step back on the road of constitutional development, a major win for the reactionary party of the Hungarian nobility led by Baron József Izdenczy (1733–1811). These circles had painted a grim picture of Hungary to the king, convincing him that a rebellion was imminent. While Francis had already decided that he would not gather the

diet Diet may refer to: Food * Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group * Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake ** Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss ...

again because of the , now Izdenczy's party hoped to abolish the office of

palatine A palatine or palatinus (in Latin; plural ''palatini''; cf. derivative spellings below) is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times.

. Still, to avoid upsetting the progressive circles, the baron advised the king to give more power to Joseph than what the previous governor, the Duke of Teschen had received, so that his position would be more similar to that of a palatine. Thus, Joseph was not welcomed with unequivocal enthusiasm, especially because many of the highest office holders were replaced at the same time, which seemed to signal a regime change. Before he was sent to Buda, the new governor received an education in Hungarian law from the Josephinist

canon law Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...

yer György Zsigmond Lakics (1739–1814), chosen by Izdenczy. He also received instructions from King Francis, advising him to ''"keep ishouse in order, manage it well, (...) treat isentourage humanely and do not tolerate intrigue"''. He suggested that he travel around Hungary to get to know his new subjects, but avoid spending too much on the tour, and reminded him that his first duty would be justice to his people. Archduke Joseph entered Buda on 19 September 1795, heading a

procession A procession is an organized body of people walking in a formal or ceremonial manner. History Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a natural form of public celebration, as forming an orderly and impressive ceremony. Religious ...

amidst a cheering crowd and marching under

triumphal arch A triumphal arch is a free-standing monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, cro ...

s. On the 21st, he was

inaugurated In government and politics, inauguration is the process of swearing a person into office and thus making that person the incumbent. Such an inauguration commonly occurs through a formal ceremony or special event, which may also include an inaugur ...

as '' főispán'' of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun County, followed by

in the

Matthias Church , other name = , native_name = hu, Mátyás-templom , native_name_lang = , image = Matthias Church, Budapest, 2017.jpg , imagesize = , imagelink = , imagealt ...

('')'', a lunch hosted by Prince-Primate with 600 guests and a ball at night. On the next day, he took his seat as president of the governing council. He continued studying Hungarian history and law from Lakics, and started learning the language from , who had participated in the Hungarian Jacobin movement.

Work as governor

The first case he needed to take on was that of eight university and secondary school teachers who had allegedly been associated with Martinovics and

freemasonry Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...

. The ongoing investigation brought on allegations such as one of them translating

La Marseillaise "La Marseillaise" is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du R ...

, organising gatherings with convicted freemasons and Martinovics co-conspirators in attendance, or teaching

pantheism Pantheism is the belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical with divinity and a supreme supernatural being or entity, pointing to the universe as being an immanent creator deity still expanding and creating, which has ...

. The king ordered an investigation, which was not in the interest of János Németh of Nyék (1748–1807), head of the Royal Directorate and close ally of Izdenczy, who lacked substantial proof. Thus, he persuaded the governor to write a referral to the king, proposing the dismissal of five of the accused teacher, which the king accepted. His biographer Domanovszky writes that in this first matter, which he had to solve only 3 weeks after arriving in Buda, the governor did not seem to have a mind of his own yet and relied entirely on a referral he had received from Németh. The other important issue Joseph needed to help settle in his first year in Hungary was that of the

Royal University of Pest Royal may refer to: People * Royal (name), a list of people with either the surname or given name * A member of a royal family Places United States * Royal, Arkansas, an unincorporated community * Royal, Illinois, a village * Royal, Iowa, a c ...

(today Eötvös Loránd University). Since 1790, there had been plans to move it to a smaller city, namely

Nagyszombat Trnava (, german: Tyrnau; hu, Nagyszombat, also known by other alternative names) is a city in western Slovakia, to the northeast of Bratislava, on the Trnávka river. It is the capital of a ''kraj'' (Trnava Region) and of an ''okres'' (Trnava ...

(today Trnava,

Slovakia Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...

Esztergom Esztergom ( ; german: Gran; la, Solva or ; sk, Ostrihom, known by alternative names) is a city with county rights in northern Hungary, northwest of the capital Budapest. It lies in Komárom-Esztergom County, on the right bank of the river Dan ...

Vác Vác (; german: Waitzen; sk, Vacov; yi, ווייצען) is a town in Pest county in Hungary with approximately 35,000 inhabitants. The archaic spelling of the name is ''Vácz''. Location Vác is located north of Budapest on the eastern bank o ...

, or

Eger Eger ( , ; ; also known by other alternative names) is the county seat of Heves County, and the second largest city in Northern Hungary (after Miskolc). A city with county rights. Eger is best known for its castle, thermal baths, baroque bui ...

. In 1794, these cities urged their respective counties to reach an agreement, while Pest tried to keep the institution. Most of the clerical elite, the conservative aristocrats, and the gentry's deputies wanted to see it removed. On 23 October 1795, the referral reached the governing council. The governor himself followed entirely the public opinion. The first problem he solved on his own was an outbreak of

plague Plague or The Plague may refer to: Agriculture, fauna, and medicine *Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis'' * An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural) * A pandemic caused by such a disease * A swarm of pe ...

in Syrmia County. The situation was worsened by hurried and inconsistent countermeasures. Joseph ordered a

lockdown A lockdown is a restriction policy for people, community or a country to stay where they are, usually due to specific risks (such as COVID-19) that could possibly harm the people if they move and interact freely. The term is used for a prison ...

of the infected area, leading to a revolt by the population of two villages who let out their

quarantine A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have been ...

d neighbours and attempted to break through the cordon, protected from the outside by armed

civilian Civilians under international humanitarian law are "persons who are not members of the armed forces" and they are not " combatants if they carry arms openly and respect the laws and customs of war". It is slightly different from a non-combatant ...

s from the nearby uninfected villages and supervised by the

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...

. The governor appealed for an arms shipment to the martial council in Vienna, which generally opposed arming civilians in fear of a rebellion. Joseph stood his ground, obtaining the necessary weapons after negotiations, and prevented the disease from spreading to other parts of the country. Besides these larger matters, the king mainly occupied Joseph with policing dissenters and uncovering suspected conspiracies. In smaller debates on

religious tolerance Religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful". ...

(which he enforced despite being a devoted Catholic), wine

export An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...

(which he supported), or welcoming refugee a great number of French

priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in partic ...

s to the country (which he refused to do as he feared that they would be too much of a burden and keep local priests from advancing), he proved to be a level-headed and caring leader.

Palatine of Hungary

Palatinal election

Contrary to the hopes of the reactionary party, most members of the aristocracy and the gentry wanted to see Archduke Joseph as elected palatine (Hungarian: ''nádor)'', a view that was only strengthened when they met him personally. However, the body to elect the palatine was the

, which Emperor Francis (1768–1835) had no intention of gathering. As he needed the assistance of Hungarians in fighting the

(1792–1802) he could eventually be convinced to gather a diet with the sole purpose of electing a palatine. After much negotiation, during which the governor tried to convince the king that a diet and a palatine were necessary to afford the required aid, while Izdenczy argued against it, Francis conceded to Joseph. On 8 November 1796, the diet had its first session in

Pozsony Bratislava (, also ; ; german: Preßburg/Pressburg ; hu, Pozsony) is the capital and largest city of Slovakia. Officially, the population of the city is about 475,000; however, it is estimated to be more than 660,000 — approximately 140% of ...

(today Bratislava,

), Archduke Joseph was elected palatine on 12 November and inaugurated on the 14th.

Work as palatine

1796–1802

After his election as palatine, Joseph assumed a more active role in Hungary. While previously he had mostly relied on the opinions and decisions of Izdenczy's ultra-conservative party and even supported the removal of progressive teachers accused by them of corrupting the youth, he now realised that their investigation lacked real proof and was not conducted in a professional way. He heavily criticised this to the Viennese court and reprimanded Németh. Economic considerations first appeared in Archduke Joseph's letters in early 1796. In early February, he alerted Emperor Francis to the devastation that the loss of the Polish market for

Hungarian wine Hungarian wine has a history dating back to the Kingdom of Hungary. Outside Hungary, the best-known wines are the white dessert wine Tokaji aszú (particularly in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia) and the red wine Bull's Blood of Eger (Egri ...

caused after Poland had been partitioned two times. His proposal that the emperor should help out wine trade was his first individual idea in Hungary, but was rejected as Vienna wanted to maintain the economic dominance of the

Habsburg hereditary lands The ''Erblande'' ("Hereditary Lands") of the House of Habsburg formed the Alpine heartland of the Habsburg monarchy.Kann, ''Habsburg Empire'', 1–4. They were the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire from before ...

''(Erblande).'' In early September, while the emperor continued to demand soldiers and ammunition from Hungary for the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars, the palatine relayed the nobility's wish for a diet, which was fervently opposed by the court. This might have been the final point that convinced Joseph that Vienna was partial against Hungary and many decisions were made on biased grounds. During these first years of his palatinate, the majority of the archduke's time was taken up by preparations for the war, equipping and training Hungarian soldiers. In early 1797, after many military failures, Emperor Francis sent his family to Buda to keep them safe. Around this time, a shift can be observed in the tone of the letters between the brothers: Joseph stopped simply executing Francis' will and became the more proactive one. Still, he remained conservative in his thinking and worried that the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers could "confuse" the less-educated. He warned the emperor to keep an eye on returning prisoners of war who might have picked up revolutionary ideas in France. In early 1798, he suggested the establishment of a

police force The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state, with the aim to enforce the law, to ensure the safety, health and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder. Their lawful powers include arrest and th ...

against the ''"strong advance of the revolutionary spirit"'' and proposed a

secret police Secret police (or political police) are intelligence, security or police agencies that engage in covert operations against a government's political, religious, or social opponents and dissidents. Secret police organizations are characteristic of ...

to keep an eye on cities. These ideas had already been brought up during the reign of

Joseph II Joseph II (German: Josef Benedikt Anton Michael Adam; English: ''Joseph Benedict Anthony Michael Adam''; 13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Holy Roman Emperor from August 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg lands from November 29, 1780 un ...

(1780–1790), but were too fiercely opposed by the nobility.' While a secret police was established to monitor the mood in ten cities, there is no proof of the palatine ever collaborating with this agency.'

Effect of first two visits to Russia

A major turning point in Archduke Joseph's attitude towards his office were his travels to

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...

. In 1798 and 1799, he visited

Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...

twice to finalise marriage plans with

Emperor Paul I Paul I (russian: Па́вел I Петро́вич ; – ) was Emperor of Russia from 1796 until his assassination. Officially, he was the only son of Peter III and Catherine the Great, although Catherine hinted that he was fathered by her l ...

's daughter, Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna. During the negotiations, he suffered many humiliations because of the diplomatic mistakes of the Viennese court, which led to him viewing his brother's administration with a more critical eye. Prior to 1798, he mostly served to execute imperial will in Hungary, and during his short first marriage, he worked little. After the loss of his wife, though, when his focus shifted towards public matters again, he approached them very differently than before, with his own opinion on them. Already on 9 June 1801, the day after his daughter's birth and death, he wrote a referral to his brother asking him to release the remaining

political prisoner A political prisoner is someone imprisoned for their political activity. The political offense is not always the official reason for the prisoner's detention. There is no internationally recognized legal definition of the concept, although n ...

s of the , including

Ferenc Kazinczy Ferenc Kazinczy (in older English: Francis Kazinczy, October 27, 1759 – August 23, 1831) was a Hungarian author, poet, translator, neologist, an agent in the regeneration of the Hungarian language and literature at the turn of the 19th centu ...

. He also urged the emperor to gather a diet, allow a reform of public education, proposed the establishment of a second university, and wished to boost trade. He was concerned what a ''"relatively sparse population"'' the ''"vast, abundant area"'' of Hungary supported (different estimations give between 8,1 and 9 million inhabitants for an area of 282,870 km²/109,220 sq mi in 1790) and at what a ''"backwards stage of culture, among what primitive economic conditions"''.

The report of 1801

On 17 June 1801, Joseph submitted a report to Emperor-King Francis, explaining his view and opinions on all aspects of Hungary. He characterised public opinion and morale as mostly high, save for a few "atheistic and freethinking" young people. While he was mostly satisfied with the work of priests, he would have preferred to have less

parish A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one o ...

es, all of them with good pastors. He criticised members of the aristocracy for not striving for knowledge and useful occupations, that few of them ran for public office and most of these people neglected their high office. He proposed that in the future, only those should be promoted to the rank of

chamberlain Chamberlain may refer to: Profession *Chamberlain (office), the officer in charge of managing the household of a sovereign or other noble figure People *Chamberlain (surname) **Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), German-British philosop ...

or ''

hofrat ''Geheimrat'' was the title of the highest advising officials at the Imperial, royal or princely courts of the Holy Roman Empire, who jointly formed the ''Geheimer Rat'' reporting to the ruler. The term remained in use during subsequent monarchic r ...

'' ("court councillor") who had proved themselves in public office. Joseph also emphasised the importance of the lower nobility (Hungarian: ''köznemesség'', "common nobility") and that the court should show more appreciation towards them. In detailing his view on all classes of Hungarian society, he was the most dissatisfied with the bureaucracy, faulting them for a lack of zeal and diligence and not keeping

classified information Classified information is material that a government body deems to be sensitive information that must be protected. Access is restricted by law or regulation to particular groups of people with the necessary security clearance and need to kn ...

secret. His proposed solutions focused not on oppressing opposition but on maintaining the country's good spirits by allowing a diet.

The diet of 1802

= Background

= Amidst the trials of the French Revolutionary Wars,

, Joseph's brother and

lieutenant field marshal Lieutenant field marshal, also frequently historically field marshal lieutenant (german: Feldmarschall-Leutnant, formerly , historically also and, in official Imperial and Royal Austrian army documents from 1867 always , abbreviated ''FML''), wa ...

of the Imperial Army. He planned a major reform of military training and service, and demanded recruits and money from Hungary. This could only be afforded by the diet, and the Viennese court was afraid that the nobility would bring up their many complaints if one was gathered. Joseph worked hard to convince his brother to allow this, and he presented his arguments in his report of June 1801. Two days after he handed in the report, on 19 June, he asked the emperor-king to declare the time and place of the diet, proposing March 1802 and Buda. He also suggested that the king solve some of the problems the Hungarian nobility ahead of the diet, such as reattaching Dalmatia to Hungary, or allowing a free export of grain (that had been forbidden to keep the enemy French from acquiring) to boost the economy. The pressing situation of the Imperial Army in the ongoing war finally led to the Viennese court accepting that the diet needed to be consulted, but in May and in

(today Bratislava,

). Despite tragedies in his personal life (the death of his infant daughter and then of his wife in early of 1801) and problems with his physical health, he worked hard to prepare the assembly, battling the reluctance of the emperor and his ministers who were unwilling to compromise. They especially pushed back on helping the Hungarian economy in any way and on the idea of reattaching Dalmatia. They also refused to consider any educational reforms and held that this was to be decided by the monarch without consulting the nobility. The Viennese legislature thought that Hungary did not contribute proportionally to the Habsburg monarchy, while many Hungarians criticised the government for holding back opportunities for industrial developments from the country.

= The diet

= After a first session on 6 May, the diet of 1802 was ceremoniously opened on the 13th, with multiple members of the Habsburg dynasty present. In his opening speech, Joseph aligned himself more with Hungarians than with his own dynasty, promising to protect the country's rights if the emperor tried to infringe upon them. He also heavily emphasised the importance of "complete trust" in the sovereign. The main goals of the diet was to achieve legislation that helped the agricultural and industrial development of Hungary, stifled by the customs regulations of Queen (Regnant) Maria II (Theresa) (reigned 1740–1780) and Emperor-King Joseph II (reigned 1780–1790). Many cities, towns, and

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...

s compiled proof and wrote explanations of why the existing system was unjust and unsustainable, asking for a more equal treatment of all parts of the Habsburg monarchy in terms of economic regulations. Deputies were selected to present this material, including (1765–1823), ''helytartótanácsos'' ("member of the governing council") and (1729–1799), '' főispán'' of

Zagreb County Zagreb County ( hr, Zagrebačka županija) is a county in Northern Croatia. It surrounds, but does not contain, the nation's capital Zagreb, which is a separate territorial unit. For that reason, the county is often nicknamed "Zagreb ring" ( hr, ...

. Skerlecz stated that the main goal of Austrian customs regulations was to prevent the foundation of

factories A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial facility, often a complex consisting of several buildings filled with machinery, where workers manufacture items or operate machines which process each item into another. T ...

in Hungary and to almost entirely exclude Hungarian merchants from international trade. Another economist supporting a major reform was Gergely Berzeviczy of Berzevice and Kakaslomnic (1763–1822). He wrote a detailed argument endorsing the deputies' goals and recommendations, including rebuttals against accusations made by the Viennese government which claimed that it was the laziness and primitiveness of Hungarians that kept the country from being as useful in the Habsburg monarchy as possible. In summary, the Hungarians wanted a more independent economy, free from the " shackles" put on it by previous sovereigns. Despite these efforts, the Austrians were dismissive. King Francis had already committed himself to the old regulations, which his father Leopold II had attempted to change. Another problem raised at the diet was that of

banknote A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand. Banknotes were originally issued ...

s, which had been used since 1762. The acceptance of banknotes as a form of payment by all was made compulsory in 1800. As a result of

government debt A country's gross government debt (also called public debt, or sovereign debt) is the financial liabilities of the government sector. Changes in government debt over time reflect primarily borrowing due to past government deficits. A deficit oc ...

inflation In economics, inflation is an increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation corresponds to a reduct ...

was also concerning. Already before the diet, the palatine had alerted the king that the Hungarian nobles would bring up these issues. Given how serious the monarchy's troubles were and how distrusftul the Viennese legislation and the Hungarian nobility were with each other, the prospects's of the diet seemed bleak. One likely possibility was that the more enlightened proposals would cause the Austrian party to become antagonistic in defence, strengthening the reactionary and absolutist factions in Vienna. This would have made all necessary reforms impossible. Despite these signs of probable failure, the young palatine worked hard, immersing himself in the output of previous negotiations between the two parties. When he learned that the '' főispáns'' of each

county A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposes Chambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...

were commanded to submit the instructions given to their respective envoys to the chancellery, he was deeply concerned that this would cause distrust among Hungarians. He also gave frequent descriptions of public sentiment to the emperor-king, telling him that while most people deemed the royal demands just and necessary, opinions differed on methods of execution. To elevate the spirits of all, some members of the imperial-royal family moved to Pozsony for the time of the assembly, and various feasts and religious ceremonies were held. As a result of private meetings among them, the sentiments of the envoys with more extreme opinions were consolidated by the time they presented their ideas before the diet, and initial negotiations seemed to be promising. However, the royal propositions of 13 May, which did not mention any of the subjects that concerned the Hungarians but asked for new recruits and higher

tax A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a governmental organization in order to fund government spending and various public expenditures (regional, local, or n ...

es. On the 21st, the nobles asked for time to discuss the demands and asked for economic reforms to ease the introduction of higher taxes. King Francis received their referral well, and it seemed that the efforts of Archduke Joseph would result in a smoother process. However,

conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in ...

and anti-constitutional circles in Vienna raised concerns about the assembly debating the emperor's proposals in any way, and while negotiations were peaceful and well-intentioned, both parties were unwilling to compromise. During the following talks, Joseph often played the role of mediator and calmed the Hungarians, who worried that the Viennese court wanted to inroduce continual recruitment to render diets unnecessary. Tensions were increased considerably by a formal royal letter on 12 July, which heavily emphasised

royal prerogative The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy, as belonging to the sovereign and which have become widely vested in th ...

s ''("felségjogok")'' on the counsel of

. From this, the envoys deduced that the king did not want to respect their right that new taxes and recruits could only be afforded by the assembly. On 18 July, a report to Archduke Charles described the mood of participants as confused and withdrawn. To avoid further escalation, Archduke Joseph decided to personally talk to his brother in early August. He described how determined the envoys were to achieve their goals and that they represented the general opinion of Hungary, and he openly told the king that if Vienna insisted on the points of the letter of 12 July, the situation would deteriorate beyond help. He also expressed his support for some of the economic concerns of the assembly. As a result, a new royal letter on 14 August focused more on achieving consensus and stated that all decisions would only be effective until the next diet. In a separate, confidential letter he entrusted the palatine with settling matters "favourably for the state", giving guidelines on how far he could go for a compromise. By this time, however, participating nobles had become distrustful of the king and insisted on all of their previous demands, despite Joseph trying to convince them to compromise. Eventually, he told the envoys that if they did not accept his mediation, he would advise the emperor to refuse all of their requests. In response to this threat, the diet voted to allow for 12 000 new recruits and promised to find a final solution for continual recruitment on the next diet. The next diet, held in 1804, did not deliver on these promises and was altogether inconsequential, with some development towards making Hungarian the official language of the country instead of

. It seemed that Joseph had grown tired of the assembly by mid-August, and he soon asked the king to settle some minor issues and end the diet. In the end, economic reforms were never even seriously considered, especially because the issue was brought up on 14 July, the same day the badly received royal letter of the 12nd was read to the envoys. After more peaceful negotiations during September, the emperor-king's hesitance to re-attach

Modruš-Rijeka County The Modruš-Rijeka County ( hr, Modruško-riječka županija; hu, Modrus-Fiume vármegye) was a historic administrative subdivision ('' županija'') of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. Croatia-Slavonia was an autonomous kingdom within the Lan ...

meant that the diet ended in distrust and

pessimism Pessimism is a negative mental attitude in which an undesirable outcome is anticipated from a given situation. Pessimists tend to focus on the negatives of life in general. A common question asked to test for pessimism is " Is the glass half emp ...

in October. To the palatine, King Francis wrote that the Hungarian nobles "only want gains for themselves, without looking to the good of the whole" and that he would need "great resignation" to forget their "behaviour against im.

Third journey to Russia

As Archduke Joseph had developed a warm relationship with the Russian imperial family, and especially his former mother-in-law, Empress Maria Feodorovna (born Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg, 1759–1828), his brother relied on his help in keeping the Russians allied one more time during the Napoleonic Wars. In December 1802, the empress dowager invited Joseph to Saint Petersburg. He arrived on 30 March, and witnessed that the imperial court broke up into three factions around the

Emperor Alexander I Alexander I (; – ) was Emperor of Russia from 1801, the first King of Congress Poland from 1815, and the Grand Duke of Finland from 1809 to his death. He was the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. The son of Gra ...

(1777–1825), Empress Consort Elizabeth Alexeievna (born Princess Louise of Baden, 1779–1826), and the dowager empress. Joseph joined the dowager's circles. While he tried to seem neutral, all eyes were on him and his inclinations soon became public knowledge. During his stay, he ate lunch with the emperor almost every day and spent the afternoons with him. Alexander honestly disclosed many of his opinions and worries, which Joseph reported back to Vienna. Still, he enjoyed the company of the empress dowager and Grand Duchesses Maria (1786–1859) and

Catherine Pavlovna Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia (russian: Екатерина Павловна; 21 May 1788 S 10 May 1788– 9 January 1819) later Queen Catharina Pavlovna of Württemberg, was the fourth daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia and Du ...

(1788–1819) more, spending evenings with them. Joseph's preference for the dowager's faction displeased the Russian court, especially when he declined to embark on a tour of the country with the emperor. They found the fact that he ignored the empress' sister, Princess Amalie of Baden (1776–1823) even more offensive, as the imperial couple wished him to marry her. After it had become obvious that he was not interested in the princess, it was unclear why he even travelled to Saint Petersburg. Sensing these tensions, the archduke's ''Hofmeister'' Count János Szapáry of Szapár, Muraszombat, and Széchysziget (1757–1815) urged him to return to Buda, and even asked Emperor Francis to order him back under some pretense. Joseph himself refused to even consider leaving. Eventually, after the imperial family tried to pressure him towards marrying Princess Amalie, he decided to leave in June, and he spent his last few weeks in Pavlovsk as the empress dowager's guest. Once he had returned to Vienna, he honestly described the foreign opinion on the Habsburg monarchy to Emperor Francis and urged him to be more pro-active and quicker in his governing.

Remodelling of Pest

The first mention of Archduke Joseph's plans to elevate Pest, a neglected town into a modern European city is from 16 November 1804, when he wrote to the city leadership telling them that the sovereign himself wanted Pest to be regulated and improving, although there is no other proof of the king being interested in this matter. Joseph appointed Hungarian-German architect

József Hild József Hild (born Josef Hild, 8 December 1789 – 6 March 1867) was a Hungarian-German architect.Hild József

(1789–1867) to oversee the works, and in October 1808, the ''Pesti Szépítő Bizottság'' ("Beautifying

Committee A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly. A committee is not itself considered to be a form of assembly. Usually, the assembly sends matters into a committee as a way to explore them more ...

of Pest"), headed by the palatine himself.

Personal life

First marriage

Background

Alexandra Pavlovna by Borovikovsky (1796-1800, Gatchina)

In 1798, Joseph learned from Emperor Francis (1768–1835) that he needed to marry a member of the

Russian imperial family The House of Romanov (also transcribed Romanoff; rus, Романовы, Románovy, rɐˈmanəvɨ) was the reigning imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after the Tsarina, Anastasia Romanova, was married to t ...

in order to secure

(1754–1801) as an ally in the

(1792–1802). The proposed bride was 15-year-old

Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (russian: Александра Павловна: 9 August 1783 S 29 Julyat Tsarskoye Selo – 16 March 1801 in Buda) was a daughter of Emperor Paul I of Russia and sister of emperors Alexander I and ...

(1783–1801), Paul's eldest daughter and a granddaughter of Catherine the Great (1729–1796). There had been talks that she might marry

instead, but there was a bigger age difference between them, and Francis thought that Joseph was better suited for the match. The Russian court also preferred him. In January 1799, Joseph left for

, travelled under the

pseudonym A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individua ...

"Count Burgau", and arrived on 20 February ( O.S.). He was warmly welcomed and hugged by the emperor and then presented to the empress and the grand duchesses. The archduke was enchanted by the charm and reserved modesty of Alexandra Pavlovna, who was a tall and beautiful blonde girl, whom he described as ''"tall, well-built and very beautiful"'', as well as clever and talented. In a letter to his brother, Emperor Francis, he declared the moment of their meeting the ''"happiest moment of islife"'' and Alexandra a noble princess with whom he would be happy. Family of Paul I of Russia

Alexandra Pavlovna's mother was Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759–1828), born Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg, but until the age of 13, her education was supervised by her grandmother, Catherine the Great. She received instruction in French,

, music, and drawing with her younger sister Elena Pavlovna (later hereditary grand duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 1784–1803), with whom she was very close. She was a diligent student and talented in the arts. She had been intended to marry

Gustav IV Adolf Gustav IV Adolf or Gustav IV Adolph (1 November 1778 – 7 February 1837) was King of Sweden from 1792 until he was deposed in a coup in 1809. He was also the last Swedish monarch to be the ruler of Finland. The occupation of Finland in 1808–09 ...

, King of Sweden (1778–1837) who did not go to the engagement party where then-13-year-old Alexandra Pavlovna was waiting in a bridal dress. The Russians insisted that the future queen be allowed to keep her

Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pa ...

religion, which the Swedish refused to accept, and the engagement came to nothing. Joseph asked for Alexandra Pavlovna's hand in marriage from her parents on 22 February (O.S.) in her presence, and they gave their blessing. On the betrothal ceremony, the bride wore and the engagement rings were exchanged by the emperor himself. He spent another month in Saint Petersburg and left on 20 March to assume a role of military leadership. A faction headed by Baron

Johann Amadeus von Thugut Johann Amadeus Franz de Paula Freiherr von Thugut (24 May 173628 May 1818) was an Austrian diplomat. Early life He was born in Linz. His origin and his unusual name (literally "do good") have been the subject of some legends. One such legend was ...

(1739–1818) conspired to replace Archduke Charles with Joseph, which he himself did not support. These plans came to nothing as Emperor Francis was too indecisive to enter an open conflict with his popular brother. Thus, Joseph was eventually not appointed, nullifying his reason for leaving Russia so soon and evoking the distrust of Emperor Paul, who would have liked to have seen his future son-in-law lead the Imperial Army. Joseph arrived in Buda on 13 May and started to prepare for the his wife's arrival, re-decorating the apartments of the royal palace and gathering female

courtier A courtier () is a person who attends the royal court of a monarch or other royalty. The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the official ...

s. He urged his brother the emperor to designate a day for the wedding, but Francis did not answer any of his letters until 19 August. Meanwhile, Emperor Paul seemed to have become disillusioned with the alliance he had entered, so Joseph was sent back to Russia to sway him, and the wedding date was finally announced as 30 October. Arriving on 15 October in the Great Gatchina Palace, he was initially welcomed warmly, but after news of lost battles arrived, which were blamed on Baron von Thugut, the emperor refused to talk to him. The Viennese court further complicated the situation by demanding that the Roman Catholic wedding precede the Orthodox one, and be celebrated by the Archbishop of Lemberg (today

Lviv Lviv ( uk, Львів) is the largest city in western Ukraine, and the seventh-largest in Ukraine, with a population of . It serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast and Lviv Raion, and is one of the main cultural centres of Ukrain ...

Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...

), who was not yet in Russia. The emperor was angered by the idea of postponing the ceremony, and everyone was greatly relieved when Kicki arrived on 26 October. The Austrians had to accept that the Orthodox ceremony will be first. On the 29th, Joseph visited the emperor without announcement, asking for his blessing and committing himself to solving the diplomatic issues openly and honestly. This made a great impression on Paul and the wedding could proceed according to the plans.

Marriage

On 30 October, after Emperor Paul had awarded Joseph the

Order of Saint Andrew The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called (russian: Орден Святого апостола Андрея Первозванного, translit=Orden Svyatogo apostola Andreya Pervozvannogo) is the highest order conferred by both the ...

, he could finally marry Alexandra Pavlovna. The wedding was first celebrated according to Orthodox rites in the imperial chapel of

Gatchina Palace The Great Gatchina Palace (russian: Большой Гатчинский дворец) is a palace in Gatchina, Leningrad Oblast, Russia. It was built from 1766 to 1781 by Antonio Rinaldi for Count Grigori Grigoryevich Orlov, who was a favouri ...

, then a Roman Catholic ceremony was also held. The following days were overshadowed by news of lost battles and subsequent tension between Austria and Russia, as well as disagreements over the specifics of the

dowry A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment ...

and the

dower Dower is a provision accorded traditionally by a husband or his family, to a wife for her support should she become widowed. It was settled on the bride (being gifted into trust) by agreement at the time of the wedding, or as provided by law. ...

. The emperor again refused to see his son-in-law, but reconciled with him shortly before the young couple's departure on 2 December, which was very emotional. After a visit to Vienna, they arrived in Buda on 11 February. Nevertheless, the Austro-Russian alliance soon fell apart and Emperor Paul pulled out. During the course of the short marriage, the couple lived happily and enjoyed each other's company. There were many festivities thrown for and by the new archduchess, including concerts, balls, hunts, and a

harvest festival A harvest festival is an annual celebration that occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region. Given the differences in climate and crops around the world, harvest festivals can be found at various times at different places. ...

, to which she usually wore Hungarian-style dresses. The couple rode and walked around Buda in a carriage, once finding the village of

Üröm Üröm is a village in Pest county, Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, R ...

, which Alexandra liked so much that Joseph bought it for her, planning to build a summer residence there. Towards the end of her pregnancy, Alexandra often visited Üröm. She enjoyed

Hungarian folk music Hungarian folk music ( hu, magyar népzene) includes a broad array of Central European styles, including the recruitment dance verbunkos, the csárdás and nóta. The name ''Népzene'' is also used for Hungarian folk music as an umbrella design ...

and talked to delegations of '' tóts'' (old name for Slovaks,

Slavonia Slavonia (; hr, Slavonija) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. Taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties: Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baran ...

Croats The Croats (; hr, Hrvati ) are a South Slavic ethnic group who share a common Croatian ancestry, culture, history and language. They are also a recognized minority in a number of neighboring countries, namely Austria, the Czech Republic, ...

Slovenes The Slovenes, also known as Slovenians ( sl, Slovenci ), are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Slovenia, and adjacent regions in Italy, Austria and Hungary. Slovenes share a common ancestry, culture, history and speak Slovene as their na ...

, and other Roman Catholic

South Slavs South Slavs are Slavic peoples who speak South Slavic languages and inhabit a contiguous region of Southeast Europe comprising the eastern Alps and the Balkan Peninsula. Geographically separated from the West Slavs and East Slavs by Austria, ...

living in Hungary) in a mix of

Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...

and Slovak. For Joseph's birthday in 1800, she commissioned Joseph Haydn to conduct '' The Creation'' (German: ''Die Schöpfung)'', and she soon also invited

Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven (baptised 17 December 177026 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. Beethoven remains one of the most admired composers in the history of Western music; his works rank amongst the most performed of the classic ...

to perform in Budapest. As a result of her kindness and consideration, Alexandra became so well-liked by Hungarians that they started to

colloquially Colloquialism (), also called colloquial language, everyday language or general parlance, is the linguistic style used for casual (informal) communication. It is the most common functional style of speech, the idiom normally employed in conversa ...

call her ''"magyar királyné"'' ("Hungarian queen consort"), much to the dismay of the Viennese court and especially Empress Theresa (who was, in fact, queen consort of Hungary). Whenever the palatinal couple visited Vienna, Alexandra was humiliated in many small ways, and they were not accommodated in the palace with the rest of the imperial family but in a remote house in the garden.

Pregnancy, birth of daughter, and death

Alexandra soon became pregnant. While the first stages were easy, she developed a

fever Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using val ...

two days before giving birth. On 8 March 1801, early in the morning a daughter was born after prolonged labour, but she was reportedly "very weak" and died within the day, possibly the hour. According to Joseph's biographer Domanovszky, the child was called Alexandra, but Hankó and Kiszely who exhumed and examined the bodies of the infant state that she was registered as Paulina in her

death certificate A death certificate is either a legal document issued by a medical practitioner which states when a person died, or a document issued by a government civil registration office, that declares the date, location and cause of a person's death, as ...

and had no separate entry in the

birth Birth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring, also referred to in technical contexts as parturition. In mammals, the process is initiated by hormones which cause the muscular walls of the uterus to contract, expelling the f ...

baptism Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost ...

registry of the , thus was probably christened after her death. Her

casket A casket jewelry box is a container that is usually smaller than a chest, and in the past were typically decorated. Whereas cremation jewelry is a small container, usually in the shape of a pendant or bracelet, to hold a small amount of ashes. ...

was inscribed with the same name. She was buried in the capuchin church in the presence of many Hungarian dignitaries. In 1838, she was transferred to the Palatinal Crypt with the

urn An urn is a vase, often with a cover, with a typically narrowed neck above a rounded body and a footed pedestal. Describing a vessel as an "urn", as opposed to a vase or other terms, generally reflects its use rather than any particular shape or ...

s containing the intestines and heart of her mother. A later investigation determined that the remains were those of a fully and normally developed newborn, not at all "very weak", and thus concluded that she probably died of hypoxia during the long delivery. AlexandraPavlovnaChapel

The death of the baby devastated both parents, but at first it seemed like there was hope that Alexandra would recover. Despite being treated by four excellent doctors, her condition did not improve, and the breast milk she could not nurse with worsened the fever. From 12 March, she was treated against

typhoid fever Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by '' Salmonella'' serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several ...

, and early on the 15th, she became delirious, dying on 16 March. Emperor Francis ordered a

mourning Mourning is the expression of an experience that is the consequence of an event in life involving loss, causing grief, occurring as a result of someone's death, specifically someone who was loved although loss from death is not exclusively ...

period of 6 weeks for the court, with some modifications because of the late archduchess' different religion. Üröm Alexandra Pavlovna sírkápolna altemplom

Üröm Alexandra Pavlovna sírkápolna altemplom

The

embalmed Embalming is the art and science of preserving human remains by treating them (in its modern form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition. This is usually done to make the deceased suitable for public or private viewing as part of the funeral ...

body was laid on an ornate

catafalque A catafalque is a raised bier, box, or similar platform, often movable, that is used to support the casket, coffin, or body of a dead person during a Christian funeral or memorial service. Following a Roman Catholic Requiem Mass, a catafalque ...

in the Russian Orthodox

chapel A chapel is a Christian place of prayer and worship that is usually relatively small. The term has several meanings. Firstly, smaller spaces inside a church that have their own altar are often called chapels; the Lady chapel is a common ty ...

built for Alexandra's personal use. It lay in state for 3 days before being placed in a separate building in the garden for 6 weeks as Orthodox customs commanded. Alexandra was buried on 12 May at noon in the Capuchin Church, her clothes were remade for clerical usage and Joseph gifted her mineral collection the

(today Eötvös Loránd University) 8 years later. On 17 March Joseph went to Vienna, then travelled around

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

. When he returned in the spring of 1802, he started the construction of the in

, where Alexandra had requested to rest. She was reburied there in 1803, and, after multiple exhumations and disturbances, is there, as of 2022. After a

grave robbery Grave robbery, tomb robbing, or tomb raiding is the act of uncovering a grave, tomb or crypt to steal commodities. It is usually perpetrated to take and profit from valuable artefacts or personal property. A related act is body snatching, a term ...

, an investigation was carried out in the late 1980s that determined that Alexandra Pavlovna suffered and probably died of

tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, i ...

. The examinations ruled out the possibility of

poisoning A poison can be any substance that is harmful to the body. It can be swallowed, inhaled, injected or absorbed through the skin. Poisoning is the harmful effect that occurs when too much of that substance has been taken. Poisoning is not to ...

, rumours of which surfaced in the years following her death.

Marriage plans after Alexandra Pavlovna's death

In early 1803, Archduke Joseph visited his late wife's family on his former mother-in-law's invitation. It was clear to him that part of the reason for the invitation was to arrange a new marriage for him. Empress Elizabeth Alexeievna (born Princess Louise of Baden, 1779–1826) wanted him to wed her older sister, Princess Amalie of Baden (1776–1823), a plan supported by the new emperor,

Alexander I Alexander I may refer to: * Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon 495–454 BC * Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus * Pope Alexander I (died 115), early bishop of Rome * Pope Alexander I of Alexandria (died 320s), patriarch of ...

(1777–1825). Amalie was known for her kindness and goodness but not her beauty, and Joseph was not attracted to her, deciding early on that he would refuse her. For her part, the princess did not like Joseph's personality. Empress Elizabeth persuaded Empress Dowager Maria to try to convince the archduke to marry Amalie, as she had great influence on him. Joseph did not want to offend his mother-in-law, and waited for weeks before openly rejecting the idea. During his stay, he grew attached to his 15-year-old sister-in-law, Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna (1788–1819) who had been promised to Electoral Prince Ludwig of Bavaria (1786–1868). However, he knew how strict the

Orthodox church Orthodox Church may refer to: * Eastern Orthodox Church * Oriental Orthodox Churches * Orthodox Presbyterian Church * Orthodox Presbyterian Church of New Zealand * State church of the Roman Empire * True Orthodox church See also * Orthodox (di ...

was about keeping

incest laws Laws regarding incest (i.e. sexual activity between family members or close relatives) vary considerably between jurisdictions, and depend on the type of sexual activity and the nature of the family relationship of the parties involved, as well ...

, which prohibited marriage between siblings-in-law, and thus did not formally propose. Princess Charlotte of Hildburghausen

Some time later, the palatine considered

Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen (17 June 1787 Hildburghausen – 12 December 1847 Bamberg) was the child of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg and his wife, Duchess Charlotte Georgine of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was the wife of Prince Pa ...

(1787–1847), daughter of

Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (29 April 1763 in Hildburghausen – 29 September 1834 in Altenburg), was duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1780–1826) and duke of Saxe-Altenburg (1826–1834). Biography He was the youngest child, but only ...

(later of Saxe-Altenburg; 1763–1834) as fiancée, since her engagement to

Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia Konstantin Pavlovich (russian: Константи́н Па́влович; ) was a grand duke of Russia and the second son of Emperor Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. He was the heir-presumptive for most of his elder brother Alexan ...

(1779–1831) had just been broken off, but there is no further information on why this plan never materialised. In November 1803, there were some signs that the emperor might agree to the marriage between his sister and the palatine, who then asked Empress Dowager Maria and received a final negative answer. In 1804, he attempted to find a bride from

Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...

, but decided not to risk proposing because of French disapproval. The archduke would see Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna two more times: first, in 1809, when she travelled through Hungary on her way to marry

Duke George of Oldenburg Duke Peter Frederick George of Oldenburg (german: link=no, Herzog Peter Friedrich Georg von Oldenburg; 9 May 1784 – 27 December 1812) was a younger son of Peter I, Grand Duke of Oldenburg and his wife Duchess Frederica of Württemberg. He was a ...

(1784–1812). The palatine escorted her through the country. In 1815, by when Catherine Pavlovna herself had also been widowed, they met again at the

Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon B ...

. Contemporary rumour suspected that the two would now revisit their old plans, but there were no signs of this. Archduke Joseph remarried to Princess ''Hermine'' of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym within that year, and Catherine married William I, King of Württemberg (1781–1864) and died in 1819.

Second marriage

After 14 years of widowhood, with the

Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...

(1803–1815) over, Joseph decided to remarry in 1815. On 30 August 1815 in the Schaumburg Castle, he married Princess ''Hermine'' Marie Amalie of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym (1797–1817), the 17-year-old eldest daughter of the late

Victor II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym Victor II Karl Frederick of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym (Schaumburg, 2 November 1767Schaumburg, 22 April 1812), was a German prince of the House of Ascania from the Anhalt-Bernburg branch and a ruler of the principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schau ...

(1767–1812) and his wife, born Princess Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg (1776–1841). The bride, 22 years younger than the groom, was from a small German state and practiced

Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...

. She became an active and well-liked ''nádorné'' ("wife of the palatine"), especially popular among Protestants. In 1817, she founded the first charitable women's association ('
nőegyesület
)'' in Hungary. On 14 September 1817, she prematurely gave birth to twins, ''Hermine'' Amalie Marie (1817–1842) and ''Stephen'' Francis Victor (1817–1867). The labour was very complicated, and Hermine died of postpartum infections within 24 hours. Joseph was not present for the birth as it was only expected in October, and he went to welcome his mother-in-law to Hungary. After lying in state for 2 days, she was buried in the crypt of the on Széna tér ("

Hay Hay is grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut and dried to be stored for use as animal fodder, either for large grazing animals raised as livestock, such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep, or for smaller domesticat ...

Square", today Kálvin tér, "Calvin Square"), which she had helped build with a

donation A donation is a gift for charity, humanitarian aid, or to benefit a cause. A donation may take various forms, including money, alms, services, or goods such as clothing, toys, food, or vehicles. A donation may satisfy medical needs such as ...

in 1816. A devastating damaged the crypt and carried away the

s containing her heart and intestines but left the casket intact. Afterwards, Joseph obtained an ecclesiastical license to transfer Hermine's remains to the Palatinal Crypt, despite her not being a Catholic. She was placed in a separate chamber within the crypt and still rests there as of 2022, today in a more central place.

Third marriage

After his two tragic marriages and in a grave economic and political climate, Archduke Joseph wished to marry for a third time. Looking for a companion in his everyday problems, he chose 22-years-old Duchess ''Maria Dorothea'' Louisa Wilhelmina Carolina of Württemberg (1797–1855), daughter of

Duke Louis of Württemberg Duke Ludwig Friedrich Alexander of Württemberg (; 30 August 1756, in Treptow an der Rega20 September 1817, in Kirchheim unter Teck) was the second son of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg (1732–1797) and Margravine Sophia Dorothea of Br ...

(1756–1817) and his second wife, born

Princess Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg Princess Henriëtte of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (22 April 1780, in Kirchheimbolanden – 2 January 1857, in Kirchheim unter Teck) was a German duchess. She was a daughter of Prince Charles Christian and Carolina of Orange-Nassau, daughte ...

(1780–1857). The former Duchy of Württemberg had been an ally of the

Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire (german: link=no, Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling , ) was a Central-Eastern European multinational great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence ...

at the end of the

(1803–1815), which was probably why Emperor Francis supported the match. The couple, with an age difference of 21 years, married in the castle of

Kirchheim unter Teck Kirchheim unter Teck (Swabian: ''Kircha'') is a town in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, in the district of Esslingen. It is located on the small river Lauter, a tributary of the Neckar. It is 10 km (6 miles) near the Teck castle, approximately ...

on 24 August 1829. Maria Dorothea spent her life as ''nádorné'' with charitable work, especially supporting the

Lutheran Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...

church in Hungary to which she belonged, teachers, and schools. She founded and supported many charitable societies and institutions. She also helped Joseph in his job as palatine, especially in the fight for making Hungarian the country's official language instead of

. On New Year's Day in 1826, she gave a speech in Hungarian, the first time a Habsburg archduchess addressed the country in its language. Maria Dorothea actively participated in the social life of Pest, frequenting the houses of the

Károlyi Károlyi is the name of a Hungarian noble family and a surname, and may refer to: * Károlyi family ** Alexander Károlyi (1668–1743), first count ** Alajos Károlyi (1825–1899), Austro-Hungarian count ** Gyula Károlyi (1871–1947), former ...

s and the

Széchenyi Széchenyi or Széchényi is the name of a wealthy Hungarian noble family which produced many politicians, landowners and influential figures within Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is not to be confused with other Szécsényi family that went extinct ...

s, with whom she largely conversed in Hungarian. On many occasions, she wore a Hungarian-style dress.

Family life

Postcard of the mansion of the Archduke in Alcsút

The couple's first child, Elizabeth Caroline Henrika was born on 30 July 1820, and died 23 days later on 23 August. She was the first person to be buried in the Palatinal Crypt, without embalming or much ceremony. According to her

, she died of "internal

hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus is a condition in which an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occurs within the brain. This typically causes increased pressure inside the skull. Older people may have headaches, double vision, poor balance, urinary inc ...

" ''("inneren Wasserkopfe")'', and a later investigation found signs supporting this claim, besides determining that she had been born prematurely. Their next child, Alexander Leopold Ferdinand was born on 6 June 1825. He was described as a kind and clever little boy, who was in great health until, in November 1837, aged 12, he started to suffer from

diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin w ...

and soon showed symptoms of scarlet fever. It is unclear what caused his death; it could be complications of scarlet fever or, more likely, a mysterious infectious disease appearing from time to time during the century which consisted of recurrent fever, jaundice, and strong sweating.

Hepatitis Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver tissue. Some people or animals with hepatitis have no symptoms, whereas others develop yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes ( jaundice), poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal ...

paratyphoid fever Paratyphoid fever, also known simply as paratyphoid, is a bacterial infection caused by one of the three types of ''Salmonella enterica''. Symptoms usually begin 6–30 days after exposure and are the same as those of typhoid fever. Often, a grad ...

, and

have also been suggested. The child was buried silently in the Palatinal Crypt. The three youngest children, ''Elisabeth'' Franziska Maria (1831–1903), ''Joseph Karl'' Ludwig (1833–1905), and ''Marie Henriette'' Anne (1836–1902) survived to adulthood. Maria Dorothea also raised her two step-children, and Joseph especially adored the older twin, Hermine, who was a favourite of Hungarian

. She died unexpectedly in 1842, aged only 25, and was greatly mourned by all, but especially her devastated father. After Joseph's death in 1847, Maria Dorothea lived for the rest of her life in

Alcsút Palace Alcsút Palace (Hungarian: ''Alcsúti kastély'') is a former royal residence located in Alcsút, central Hungary. It was the country estate of the Hungarian branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. History On 20 September 1795, Holy Ro ...

and did not play a significant role in culture or politics. She died after an illness on 30 March 1855, at the age of 58, and was buried in the Palatinal Crypt on 4 April.

Issue

Archduke Joseph had eight children from three marriages, five daughters and three sons. Two daughters

and a further one in childhood. Her three surviving children from her last marriage married and had issue, Archduke Joseph Karl (1833–1905) continuing the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the

which had been founded by his father. His older son

Stephen Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...

(1817–1867) became the last palatine of Hungary, his work being cut short after less than a year by the

Hungarian Revolution of 1848 The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 or fully Hungarian Civic Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–1849 () was one of many European Revolutions of 1848 and was closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. Although t ...

. One of his daughters, Marie Henriette (1836–1902) became

queen consort of the Belgians The wives of Belgian monarchs have all been titled Queen and styled Majesty, with the exception of Leopold III of Belgium's second wife Mary Lilian Baels, who was titled Princess of Belgium and Princess of Réthy. All Belgian monarchs so far hav ...

and mother of Crown Princess Stéphanie of Austria (1864–1945). His children were: * by

(born 1783, married 1799, died 1801): ** Archduchess Paulina/Alexandra of Austria (8 March 1801, Buda,

Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...

); * by Princess ''Hermine'' Amalie Marie of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym (born 1797, married 1815, died 1817): ** Archduchess ''Hermine'' Amalie Marie of Austria (14 September 1817, Buda – 13 February 1842,

Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...

princess-abbess A prince-abbot (german: Fürstabt) is a title for a clergy, cleric who is a Prince of the Church (like a Prince-bishop), in the sense of an ''ex officio'' temporal lord of a feudalism, feudal entity, usually a Imperial State, State of the Holy R ...

of the

Theresian Institution of Noble Ladies The Theresian Institution of Noble Ladies, officially the Imperial and Royal Theresian Stift for Noble Ladies in the Castle of Prague, was a Catholic monastic chapter of secular canonesses in Hradčany that admitted women from impoverished nobl ...

between 1835 and 1842, never married and had no issue; ** Archduke ''Stephen'' Francis Victor of Austria (14 September 1817, Buda – 19 February 1867,

Menton Menton (; , written ''Menton'' in classical norm or ''Mentan'' in Mistralian norm; it, Mentone ) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italian border. Me ...

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

), palatine of Hungary between 1847 and 1848, never married and had no issue; *by Duchess ''Maria Dorothea'' Louisa Wilhelmina Carolina of Württemberg (born 1797, married 1819, widowed 1847, died 1855): **Archduchess Elizabeth Caroline Henrika of Austria (30 July 1820, Buda – 23 August 1820, Buda), died in infancy; **Archduke Alexander Leopold Ferdinand of Austria (6 June 1825, Buda – 12 November 1837, Buda), died in childhood; ** Archduchess ''Elisabeth'' Franziska Maria of Austria (17 January 1831, Buda – 14 February 1903, Vienna) married first her second cousin

Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este Ferdinand Karl Viktor (20 July 1821 – 15 December 1849) was Archduke of Austria-Este and Prince of Modena. Biography Born in Modena, he was the second son of Francis IV of Modena and his niece-consort Maria Beatrice of Savoy. His paternal g ...

(1821–1849) in 1847 and had issue and second her first cousin

Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria (Vienna, 29 July 1818 – Gross Seelowitz ( Židlochovice Castle), 20 November 1874) was the second son of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (1771–1847) and Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg, and the ...

(1818–1874) in 1854 and had issue; ** Archduke ''Joseph Karl'' Ludwig of Austria (2 March 1833,

– 13 June 1905,

Fiume Rijeka ( , , ; also known as Fiume hu, Fiume, it, Fiume ; local Chakavian: ''Reka''; german: Sankt Veit am Flaum; sl, Reka) is the principal seaport and the third-largest city in Croatia (after Zagreb and Split). It is located in Primor ...

, Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia)

major general Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of ...

in the

, married Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1846–1927) in 1864 and had issue; ** Archduchess ''Marie Henriette'' Anne of Austria (23 August 1836, Buda – 19 September 1902, Spa,

Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...

), queen consort of the Belgians as the wife of

King Leopold II * german: link=no, Leopold Ludwig Philipp Maria Viktor , house = Saxe-Coburg and Gotha , father = Leopold I of Belgium , mother = Louise of Orléans , birth_date = , birth_place = Brussels, Belgium , death_date = ...

(1835–1909), married in 1853 and had issue, including Crown Princess Stéphanie of Austria (1864–1945); * By an unknown woman: ** Gavio Clùtos (2 March 1810 – January 1859).

Honours

* : **

Knight of the Golden Fleece This article contains a list of knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Knights of the Burgundian Golden Fleece 15th Century !Year of Induction!!Name!!Born!!Died!!Notes , - , rowspan=25, 1430, , Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, , 1396, , ...

, ''1790'' ** Grand Cross of St. Stephen, in Diamonds, ''1794'' ** Gold Civil Cross of Honour (1813/14) * : Grand Cross of the Southern Cross *

Kingdom of Prussia The Kingdom of Prussia (german: Königreich Preußen, ) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918. Marriott, J. A. R., and Charles Grant Robertson. ''The Evolution of Prussia, the Making of an Empire''. ...

: ** Knight of the Black Eagle, ''14 August 1844''''Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler'' (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm IV. ernannte Ritter
p. 22
/ref> ** Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class

Ancestry

References

Bibliography

* * * *

External links

Collection of links to books and articles on Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary (in Hungarian)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Joseph Of Hungary, Palatine 1776 births 1847 deaths Sons of emperors Austrian princes House of Habsburg-Lorraine Palatines of Hungary Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Generals of the Holy Roman Empire Burials at Palatinal Crypt Children of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Sons of kings