Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre''), is a
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in h ...
that developed among ancient
indigenous peoples in South America
The Indigenous peoples of South America or South American Indigenous peoples, are the pre-Colombian peoples of South America and their descendants. These peoples contrast with South Americans of European ancestry and those of African descent ...
. Branches migrated to
Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
,
Uruguay
Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
, and
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...
. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical
Macro-Arawakan
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean centered on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes, the proposal is called Arawakan, and the central family is called ''Maipurean''.
Proposals
Kaufman (1990) includes th ...
stock.
Name
The name ''Maipure'' was given to the family by
Filippo S. Gilij
Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Spanish: Felipe Salvador Gilij) (1721–1789) was an Italian Jesuit priest who lived in the Province of Venezuela (in present day central Venezuela) on the Orinoco River. Gilii is a highly celebrated figure in early Sout ...
in 1782, after the
Maipure language
Maipure (Maypure, Mejepure), was a language once spoken along the Ventuari, Sipapo, and Autana rivers of Amazonas and, as a lingua franca, in the Upper Orinoco
The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its draina ...
of
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important
Arawak language a century later. The term ''Arawak'' took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader
Macro-Arawakan
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean centered on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes, the proposal is called Arawakan, and the central family is called ''Maipurean''.
Proposals
Kaufman (1990) includes th ...
proposal. At that time, the name ''Maipurean'' was resurrected for the core family. See
Arawakan ''vs'' Maipurean for details.
Dispersal
The ''Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis'' (ALMH)
suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a
trade language
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
or
lingua franca
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002) and Eriksen (2014). Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages.
On the other hand,
Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the
Austronesian and
Austroasiatic
The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...
language families in Southeast Asia.
Language contact
As one of the most geographically widespread language families in all of the Americas, Arawakan linguistic influence can be found in many language families of South America. Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the
Arawa,
Bora-Muinane,
Guahibo,
Harakmbet-Katukina,
Harakmbet,
Katukina-Katawixi,
Irantxe,
Jaqi,
Karib,
Kawapana,
Kayuvava,
Kechua,
Kwaza,
Leko Leko may refer to:
* Leko (surname)
* Leko languages, a small group of African Savanna languages
* Leco language, a moribund isolate language of Bolivia
* Lekolite or Leko, a type of stage spotlight
* Alexandro da Silva Santos or Leko, Brazilian ...
,
Macro-Jê,
Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru,
Mapudungun,
Mochika,
Mura-Matanawi,
Nambikwara,
Omurano,
Pano-Takana,
Pano,
Takana
Takana is a forum of prominent personalities with the objective of fighting sexual abuse in the National Religious sector in Israel.
The forum came to the spotlight in February 2010 when it published a statement claiming that Rabbi Mordechai El ...
,
Puinave-Nadahup,
Taruma,
Tupi,
Urarina
The Urarina are an indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the valleys of the Chambira, Urituyacu, and Corrientes Rivers. According to both archaeological and historical sources, they have resided in the Chambira Bas ...
,
Witoto-Okaina,
Yaruro,
Zaparo,
Saliba-Hodi, and
Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.
Languages
Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are
extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:
*
Ta-Maipurean
The Ta-Arawakan languages, also known as Ta-Maipurean and Caribbean, are the indigenous Arawakan languages of the Caribbean Sea coasts of Central and South America. They are distinguished by the first person pronominal prefix ''ta-,'' as opposed ...
= Caribbean Arawak / Ta-Arawak = Caribbean Maipuran,
*
Upper Amazon Maipurean
The Upper Amazon Maipurean languages, a.k.a. North Amazonian or Inland Northern Maipuran, are Arawakan languages of the northern Amazon in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil.
Upper Amazon Arawakan has been surveyed comprehensively by Henri Ram ...
= North Amazonian Arawak = Inland Maipuran,
*
Central Maipurean = Pareci–Xingu = Paresí–Waurá = Central Maipuran,
*
Piro = Purus,
*
Campa = Pre-Andean Maipurean = Pre-Andine Maipuran.
An early contrast between ''Ta-Arawak'' and ''Nu-Arawak'', depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; ''nu-'' is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ''ta-'' is an innovation of one branch of the family.
Kaufman (1994)
The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:
*
Shebaye ''(†)''
*
Lapachu ''(†)''
*
Morique (also known as Morike) ''(†)''
Another language is also mentioned as "Arawakan":
*
Salumã (also known as Salumán, Enawené-Nawé)
Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now
extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao,
Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.
;Northern Maipurean
* ''
Upper Amazon
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of t ...
branch''
* ''Maritime branch''
**
Aruán (Aroã) ''(†)''
** Wapixana (also known as Wapishana):
Atorada (also known as Atoraí),
Mapidian (also known as Maopidyán),
Wapishana
**
Ta-Maipurean
The Ta-Arawakan languages, also known as Ta-Maipurean and Caribbean, are the indigenous Arawakan languages of the Caribbean Sea coasts of Central and South America. They are distinguished by the first person pronominal prefix ''ta-,'' as opposed ...
** Palikur
***
Palikur (also known as Palikúr)
***
Marawán ''(†)''
;Southern Maipurean
* ''Western branch''
**
Amuesha (also known as Amoesha, Yanesha’)
**
Chamicuro (also known as Chamikuro)
* ''
Central
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...
branch''
* ''Southern Outlier branch''
**
Terêna (dialects: Kinikinao, Terena, Guaná, Chané)
** Moxos group (also known as Moho)
***
Moxos (Ignaciano & Trinitario)
***
Baure
***
Paunaka (also known as Pauna–Paikone)
**
Piro group
* ''
Campa branch'' (also known as Pre-Andean)
Kaufman does not report the extinct
Magiana of the Moxos group.
Aikhenvald (1999)
Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the ''Southern Outlier'' and ''Western'' branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('
Apolista
Apolista is a native South American nation of western Bolivia. Sedentary farmers, hunters, gatherers and fishers, they spoke an Arawakan languages
Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known ...
') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the ''Maritime'' branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the ''North Amazonian'' branch of Northern Maipurean.
The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:
;North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
*Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2)
Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect.html" ;"title="Mawayana_language.html" ;"title="ith Mapidian under the name "
Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect">Mawayana_language.html"_;"title="ith_Mapidian_under_the_name_"Mawayana_language">Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect*Palikur_=_Kaufman's_Palikur_+_
Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect">Mawayana_language.html"_;"title="ith_Mapidian_under_the_name_"Mawayana_language">Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect*Palikur_=_Kaufman's_Palikur_+_Aroã_language">Aruán_(3)
*Caribbean_Arawakan.html" "title="Aroã_language.html" ;"title="Mawayana language">Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect">Mawayana_language.html" ;"title="ith Mapidian under the name "Mawayana language">Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect*Palikur = Kaufman's Palikur + Aroã language">Aruán (3)
*Caribbean Arawakan">Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean ...
= Ta-Maipurean (8) [incl.
Shebaye]
*Upper Amazon Arawakan, North Amazonian = Upper Amazon (17 attested)
;South and South-Western Arawak = Southern Maipurean
*South Arawak =
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally ...
+ Kaufman's Moxos group + Enawene Nawe language, Salumã +
Lapachu Apolista'(11)
*
Pareci–Xingu = Central Maipurean (6)
*
South-Western Arawak = Piro (5)
*
Campa (6)
*
Amuesha (1)
*
Chamicuro (1)
Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from
Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.
Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies
Mawayana with
Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).
Ramirez (2001)
Internal classification of Arawakan by
Henri Ramirez
Henri Ramirez is a French-Brazilian linguist known especially for his research on Arawakan languages and other language families of the Amazonian region. He is currently a professor at the Federal University of Rondônia, Guajará-Mirim.
Educat ...
(2001):
[Ramirez, Henri (2001). ]
Línguas arawak da Amazônia Setentrional
'. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas.
PDF
:2 subgroups, 10 divisions († = extinct)
*unclassified: ''Yanesha, Chamicuro''
*Western
** unclassified: ''† Yumana, † Passé''
** Japurá-Colombia division
*** ''Piapoko, Achagua; Baniwa-Koripako, Tariana; Warekena, Mandawaka; Kabiyari; Yukuna, Wainumá-Mariaté''
*** ''† Kauixana''
*** ''Resígaro''
** Upper Rio Negro division
*** ''† Baré, † Guinau, † Anauyá-Yabahana''
** Upper Orinoco division
*** ''† Pareni, Yavitero''
*** ''† Maipure''
** Negro-Roraima division
*** ''† Arua''
*** ''† Manao, † Wirina, † Bahuana, † Cariaí''
*** ''Wapixana, Atorai''
*** ''† Mawayana''
** Juruá-Jutaí division
*** ''† Marawa''
*** ''† Waraiku''
** Purus-Ucayali division
*** ''Apurinã; Piro, Kuniba, Kanamari, Manxineri ''
*** ''Kampa''
** Bolivia-Mato Grosso division
*** ''Baure, Mojeño''
*** ''Tereno, † Kinikinao''
** Caribe-Venezuela division
*** ''Lokono; Iñeri, Garífuna; † Taino; † Caquetio''
*** ''Guajiro, † Paraujano''
*Eastern
** Amapá division
*** ''Palikur, † Marawá''
** Xingu-Tapajós division
*** ''Waurá, Mehinaku; Yawalapiti''
*** ''Pareci, † Sarave''
Walker & Ribeiro (2011)
Walker & Ribeiro (2011), using
Bayesian computational phylogenetics, classify the Arawakan languages as follows.
The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the
Bayesian computational methods used.
*Northeast
**
Marawan,
Palikúr
*South
**
Kinikinau,
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally ...
**(''branch'')
***
Baure
***
Moxos:
Trinitario
The Trinitarios is an Dominican American criminal organization founded by Dominicans in New York City, New York in 1993.
History
The Trinitarios were established in 1993 on Rikers Island, the New York City jail,Luis Ferré-Sadurní & Barbara M ...
,
Ignaciano
*Western Amazonia
**(''branch'')
***
Apurinã
***(''branch'')
****
Iñapari
****
Piro,
Manxineri
**(''branch'')
***
Caquinte
***(''branch'')
****
Asheninka
****(''branch'')
*****
Machiguenga
The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern Peru. Their population in 2020 amou ...
,
Nomatsiguenga
*
Amuesha,
Chamicuro
*Circum-Caribbean
**
Waraicu,
Marawa
**(''Core branch'')
***(''Island branch'')
****
Taíno
The Taíno were a historic Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the ...
****
Island Carib
The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated languag ...
,
Garífuna
***
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They spe ...
***
Paraujano,
Guajiro
*Central Brazil
**(''branch'')
***
Saraveka
***
Enawene Mawe,
Paresí
**(''branch'')
***
Yawalapití
***
Waurá,
Mehináku
*Central Amazonia
**(''branch'')
***
Anauyá
***
Guinau,
Baré
**(''branch'')
***
Bahuana,
Manao
***(''branch'')
****
Arua
Arua is a city and commercial centre within the Arua District in the Northern Region of Uganda.
Location
Arua is approximately , by road, north-west of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda, Arua is about , by road, west of Gulu, th ...
****(''branch'')
*****
Cabiai
*****
Mawayana,
Wapixana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, no ...
*Northwest Amazonia
**(''branch'')
***
Maipure
***(''branch'')
****
Yavitero
****
Baniva, Warekena
**(''branch'')
***
Pasé,
Yumana
***(''branch'')
****
Resígaro
****(''branch'')
****
Cabiyari
*****(''branch'')
*****
Kauixana
******(''branch'')
******
Yukuna
******
Mariaté,
Wainumá
***(''branch'')
****
Achagua,
Piapoco
****(''branch'')
*****
Mandawaka,
Guarekena
*****(''branch'')
******
Tariana
******(''branch'')
*******
Kurripako
*******
Baniwa
Baniwa (also known with local variants as Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Vaniva, Walimanai, Wakuenai) are indigenous South Americans, who speak the Baniwa language belonging to the Maipurean (Arawak) language family. They live in the Amazon Region, ...
,
Karutana
Jolkesky (2016)
Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):
[Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery. 2016. ]
Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
'. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília
The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...
.
(† = extinct)
*Arawak
**''
Yanesha''
**Western
***''
Aguachile'' †
***''
Chamikuro''
***
Mamoré-
Paraguai
****
Mamoré-
Guaporé (
Portuguese article)
*****Mojo-Paunaka
******
Mojo
Mojo may refer to:
*Mojo (African-American culture), a magical charm bag used in voodoo
Arts, entertainment and media Film and television
* MOJO HD, an American television network
* ''Mojo'' (play), by Jez Butterworth, made into a 1997 film
* '' ...
: ''
Ignaciano''; ''
Trinitario
The Trinitarios is an Dominican American criminal organization founded by Dominicans in New York City, New York in 1993.
History
The Trinitarios were established in 1993 on Rikers Island, the New York City jail,Luis Ferré-Sadurní & Barbara M ...
''
******''
Paunaka''
*****Baure-Paikoneka
******Baure: ''
Baure''; ''
Joaquiniano''; ''
Muxojeone'' †
******''
Paikoneka'' †
****Terena: ''
Chane'' †; ''
Guana'' †; ''
Kinikinau''; ''
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally ...
''
***Negro-
Putumayo
****Jumana-Pase: ''
Jumana'' †; ''
Pase'' †
****''
Kaishana'' †
****Nawiki
*****''
Kabiyari''
*****Karu-Tariana
******Karu: ''
Baniwa
Baniwa (also known with local variants as Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Vaniva, Walimanai, Wakuenai) are indigenous South Americans, who speak the Baniwa language belonging to the Maipurean (Arawak) language family. They live in the Amazon Region, ...
''; ''
Kuripako''
******''
Tariana''
*****''
Mepuri'' †
*****Piapoko-Achagua: ''
Achagua''; ''
Piapoko''
*****''
Wainambu'' †
*****Warekena-Mandawaka: ''
Warekena''; ''
Mandawaka'' †
*****Yukuna-Wainuma: ''
Mariate'' †; ''
Wainuma'' †; ''
Yukuna''
****''
Resigaro''
****''
Wirina'' †
***
Orinoco
The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wor ...
****Yavitero-Baniva: ''
Baniva''; ''
Yavitero'' †
****''
Maipure'' †
***
Pre-Andine
****Ashaninka-Nomatsigenga
*****''
Nomatsigenga''
*****''
Machiguenga
The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern Peru. Their population in 2020 amou ...
''-''
Nanti''
*****Ashaninka-Kakinte
******''
Kakinte''
******Ashaninka-Asheninka
*******Ashaninka: ''
Ashaninka''
*******Asheninka: ''
Asheninka Pajonal''; ''
Asheninka Perene''; ''
Asheninka Pichis''; ''
Asheninka Ucayali''; ''
Ashininka''
***
Purus
****''
Apurinã''
****''
Iñapari''
****Piro-Manchineri: ''
Kanamare'' †; ''
Kuniba'' †; ''
Manchineri''; ''
Mashko Piro''; ''
Yine''
**Eastern
***Lower Amazon
****Atlantic: ''
Marawan'' †; ''
Palikur''
****
Guaporé-
Tapajós
*****''
Saraveka'' †
*****
Tapajós: ''
Enawene-Nawe''; ''
Paresi''
****
Xingu
*****''
Kustenau'' †
*****Waura-Mehinako: ''
Mehinaku''; ''
Waura''
*****''
Yawalapiti''
****Waraiku: ''
Waraiku'' †
***
Solimões-Caribbean: ''
Marawan'' †; ''
Palikur''
****''
Marawa'' †
****
Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean ...
*****''
Kaketio'' †
*****Wayuu-Añun
******''
Añun''
******''
Wayuu''
*****Lokono-Iñeri
******Iñeri: ''
Garifuna
The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Cr ...
''; ''
Kalhiphona'' †
******''
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They spe ...
''
*****''
Shebayo'' †
*****''
Taino'' †
****Negro-Branco
*****''
Arua
Arua is a city and commercial centre within the Arua District in the Northern Region of Uganda.
Location
Arua is approximately , by road, north-west of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda, Arua is about , by road, west of Gulu, th ...
'' †
*****''
Mainatari'' †
*****
Negro
In the English language, ''negro'' is a term historically used to denote persons considered to be of Black African heritage. The word ''negro'' means the color black in both Spanish and in Portuguese, where English took it from. The term can be ...
******Bare-Guinao: ''
Bare''; ''
Guinao'' †
******Bawana-Kariai-Manao: ''
Bawana'' †; ''
Kariai'' †; ''
Manao'' †
******''
Yabaana'' †
*****
Branco
******''
Mawayana''
******Wapishana-Parawana: ''
Aroaki'' †; ''
Atorada''; ''
Parawana'' †; ''
Wapishana''
Nikulin & Carvalho (2019)
Internal classification by Nikulin & Carvalho (2019: 270):
[Nikulin, Andrey; Fernando O. de Carvalho. 2019]
Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: um panorama
''Macabéa – Revista Eletrônica do Netlli'', v. 8, n. 2 (2019), p. 255-305.
PDF
*''
Yanesha’''
*''
Chamicuro''
*''
Palikur''
*Maritime
**''
Island Carib
The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated languag ...
''; ''
Garífuna''
**''
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They spe ...
''; ''
Wayuunaiki
Wayuu ( guc, Wayuunaiki ), or Guajiro, is a major Arawakan language spoken by 305,000 indigenous Wayuu people in northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia on the Guajira Peninsula.
There are 200,000 speakers of Wayuu in Venezuela and 12 ...
'', ''
Añun''
*
Rio Branco
**''
Wapixana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, no ...
''
**''
Mawayana''
*Japurá-Colômbia
**''
Piapoco''
**''
Achagua''
**''
Yucuna''
**''
Resígaro''
**''
Tariana''
**''
Baniwa-Koripako''
**''
Warekena Antigo''
*Orinoco
**''
Baré''
**''
Yavitero''
**''
Baniva of Guainia''
**''
Maipure''
**''
Warekena of Xié''
*Central
**''
Paresí''
**''
Enawenê-Nawê''
**Xingu
***''
Yawalapití''
***''
Waurá''; ''
Mehináku''
*Purus
**''
Apurinã''
**''
Iñapari''; ''
Yine/Manxinéru''
*Campa
**''
Nomatsiguenga''
**''
Matsiguenga''
**''
Nanti''
**''
Caquinte''
**''
Asháninka
The Asháninka or Asháninca are an indigenous people living in the rainforests of Peru and in the State of Acre, Brazil. Their ancestral lands are in the forests of Junín, Pasco, Huánuco and part of Ucayali in Peru.
Population
The Ashán ...
''
**''
Ashéninka''
*Bolívia-Paraná
**''
Baure''; ''
Carmelito''; ''
Joaquiniano''
**''
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally ...
''; ''
Paunaka''; ''
Mojeño (Trinitário, Ignaciano, Loretano, Javeriano)''
Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:
*''Maritime'': loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
**''Lokono-Wayuu'': first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ ‘three’ as characteristic of this subgroup.
*''Campa'': lexical innovations such as *iNʧato ‘tree’, *-taki ‘bark’, *-toNki ‘bone’, etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.
Ramirez (2020)
The internal classification of Arawakan by
Henri Ramirez
Henri Ramirez is a French-Brazilian linguist known especially for his research on Arawakan languages and other language families of the Amazonian region. He is currently a professor at the Federal University of Rondônia, Guajará-Mirim.
Educat ...
(2020) is as follows.
This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001
), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).
:12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)
*
Japurá-Colombia (
Portuguese article)
**† ''
Mepuri''
**† ''
Yumana'', † ''
Passé''
**† ''
Kauixana''
**Peripheral
***† ''
Mandawaka'', ''
Warekena (do San Miguel)''; ''
Baniwa
Baniwa (also known with local variants as Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Vaniva, Walimanai, Wakuenai) are indigenous South Americans, who speak the Baniwa language belonging to the Maipurean (Arawak) language family. They live in the Amazon Region, ...
-
Koripako''
***''
Piapoco'', ''
Achagua''; ''
Kabiyari''
***† ''
Resígaro''
***† ''
Wainumá-Mariaté''
***''
Yukuna''
*Upper
Orinoco
The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wor ...
**''
Baniva de Maroa''
**† ''
Pareni-Yavitero''
**† ''
Maipure''
*Central-Amazon-Antilles ? (probable branch)
**Amazon-
Antilles
The Antilles (; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Antiy; es, Antillas; french: Antilles; nl, Antillen; ht, Antiy; pap, Antias; Jamaican Patois: ''Antiliiz'') is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mex ...
***''
Guajiro'', † ''
Paraujano''
***† ''
Taino'', ''
Iñeri'', ''
Loko'', † ''
Marawá''
***? † ''
Waraiku''
***? † ''
Wirina''
**Middle
Rio Negro
***† ''
Baré''
***† ''
Guinau''
***† ''
Anauyá''; † ''
Mainatari'', † ''
Yabahana''
**Central
***† ''
Bahuana''; † ''
Manao'', † ''
Cariaí''
***† ''
Aruã''
***
Pidjanan
****† ''
Mawayana''
****''
Wapixana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, no ...
'', † ''
Parawana'', † ''
Aroaqui''
***? † ''
Shebayo''
*
Mato Grosso-Palikur ? (probable branch)
**
Amapá
***''
Palikur''
**
Mato Grosso
***
Xingu
****''
Waurá''
****''
Yawalapiti''
***
Xaray
****''
Salumã''
****''
Pareci''
****† ''
Sarave''
*Bolivia-Purus-Kampa-(Amuesha) ? (probable branch)
**Bolivia
***''
Baure''
***''
Pauna
Pauna is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department
Department may refer to:
* Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility
Government and military
*Department (administrative division ...
''; ''
Mojeño'', ''
Tereno''
**
Purus
***† ''
Iñapari''
***''
Piro''
***''
Apurinã''
***† ''
Cararí''
**Pre-Andine
***''
Kampa''
**
Pozuzo
***''
Amuesha''
*Lower
Ucayali
The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city o ...
**† ''
Chamicuro''
**? † ''
Moríque''
Varieties
Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by
Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
;Island languages
*Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the
Greater Antilles
The Greater Antilles ( es, Grandes Antillas or Antillas Mayores; french: Grandes Antilles; ht, Gwo Zantiy; jam, Grieta hAntiliiz) is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, including Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, a ...
Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are:
**Taino of Haiti and Quisqueya - extinct language of the island were
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...
and
The Republic of Haiti
''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
.
**Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of
Jiguaní,
Bayano, and
Quivicán
Quivicán is a town and municipality in Mayabeque Province of Cuba. It is located in the south west of the province, bordering the Gulf of Batabanó. The name is of Taino origin (spelled '' Quibicán''). It was founded in 1700.
Geography
The mu ...
; now the last descendants speak only Spanish.
**Borinquen - once spoken on the island of
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
.
**Yamaye - once spoken on the island of
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of Hispa ...
.
**Lucaya - once spoken on the
Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the a ...
Islands.
*Eyed / Allouage - once spoken in the
Lesser Antilles
The Lesser Antilles ( es, link=no, Antillas Menores; french: link=no, Petites Antilles; pap, Antias Menor; nl, Kleine Antillen) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc be ...
.
* - spoken on the eastern part of the island of
Trinidad
Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. It is often referred to as the southernmos ...
.
*Naparina - once spoken on the island of Trinidad. (Unattested.)
*Caliponau - language spoken by the women of the Carib tribes in the Lesser Antilles.
;Guiana language
*Arawak / Aruaqui / Luccumi / Locono - spoken in the Guianas. Dialects are:
**Western - spoken in Guyana.
**Eastern - spoken in French Guiana on the
Curipi River and
Oyapoque River.
;Central group
*Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the
Tacutu River,
Mahú River, and
Surumú River
The Surumu River is a river of Roraima state in northern Brazil.
See also
*List of rivers of Roraima
List of rivers in Roraima (Brazilian State).
The list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each larger s ...
, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana.
*Amariba - once spoken at the sources of the
Tacutu River and
Rupununi River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
*Atorai / Attaraye / Daurí - spoken between the
Rupununi River and
Kuyuwini River
The Kuyuwini River is a river Guyana.
Marudi Mountain is a critical watershed that feeds into the river.
The area surrounding the river is considered traditional lands of the Wapishana, and they monitor the river for environmental threats. Con ...
, Guyana.
;Mapidian group
*Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the
Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct.
*Mawakwa - once spoken on the
Mavaca River, Venezuela.
;Goajira group
*Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the
Goajira Peninsula
The Guajira Peninsula ( es, Península de La Guajira, links=no, also spelled ''Goajira'', mainly in colonial period texts, guc, Hikükariby) is a peninsula in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela in the Caribbean. It is the northe ...
in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual.
*Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on
Lake Maracaibo, Zulia state, Venezuela.
*Alile - once spoken on the
Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Onota - once spoken between
Lake Maracaibo and the
Palmar River
The Palmar River ( es, Rio El Palmar) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into Lake Maracaibo.
The Palmar River rises in the Serranía del Perijá.
In its lower reaches it flows through an area of the Catatumbo moist forests ecoregion.
It then flo ...
in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the
Hacha River
Hacha may refer to:
* Emil Hácha (1872–1945), the third President of Czechoslovakia from 1938 to 1939
* Hacha (corporation), a Chinese electronics manufacturer mostly involved with portable media player (PMP) design and manufacture
* the Spanis ...
, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the
Serranía Cosina,
Goajira Peninsula
The Guajira Peninsula ( es, Península de La Guajira, links=no, also spelled ''Goajira'', mainly in colonial period texts, guc, Hikükariby) is a peninsula in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela in the Caribbean. It is the northe ...
, Colombia. (Unattested.)
;Caquetío group
*Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the
Yaracuy River
The Yaracuy River is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...
,
Portuguesa River
The Portuguesa River (Spanish: ''Río Portuguesa'', also ''Río la Portuguesa'', ''Río de la Portuguesa'') is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin, and is a tributary of the Apure River (which is, in turn, a tributary of the ...
, and
Apure River
The Apure River is a river of southwestern Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the Sarare and Uribante near Guasdualito, in Venezuela, at , and flowing across the Llanos into the Orinoco. It provides significant transportation in the area.
Orig ...
, Venezuela. (only several words)
*Ajagua - once spoken on the
Tocuyo River
The Tocuyo River ( es, Río Tocuyo) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea.
The river drains part of the Lara-Falcón dry forests ecoregion.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By d ...
near
Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.)
*Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.)
*Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.)
*Aviamo - once spoken on the
Uribante River
The Uribante River is a river of Venezuela, a tributary of the Apure River.
The river is in the Orinoco basin.
It drains part of the southern slope of the Táchira depression.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in ...
, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
*Tecua - once spoken on the
Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Yaguai - once spoken on the
Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Cocaima - once spoken between the
Setenta River and
Matiyure River
Matiyure River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ...
, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Chacanta - once spoken on the
Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.)
*Caparo - once spoken on the
Caparo River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Támud - once spoken northeast of the
Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the
Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cuite - once spoken on the
Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the
Pereno River. (Unattested.)
*Chucuna - once spoken between the
Manacacías River and
Vichada River, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Guayupe - spoken on the
Güejar River
Güejar River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
Geography
Güejar River flows from the Cordillera Oriental.Philippe Conrad, ''Gold in the Jungle'', 1990, p. 225
See also
*List of rivers of Colombia
Atlantic Oce ...
and
Ariari River
The Ariari River is a river of Colombia, located entirely within the Meta Department. Part of the Orinoco River basin, it merges with the Guayabero River to forms the Guaviare River, one of the principle tributaries of the Orinoco.
See also
*Lis ...
, Meta territory.
*Sae - once spoken by the neighbors of the Guayupe tribe in the same region. (Unattested.)
*Sutagao - spoken once on the
Pasca River and
Sumapaz River
The Sumapaz River ( es, Río Sumapaz) is a major tributary of the Magdalena River in Colombia. The long river originates in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes at the largest páramo in the world; Sumapaz, of which it takes its name. It fo ...
, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Chocue / Choque - once spoken on the
Herorú River and
Guayabero River
The Guayabero River is a river of Colombia. It is primarily located in the Meta Department, forming a portion of its border with the Guaviare Department. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. Its confluence with the Ariari River gives rise to t ...
, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Eperigua - once spoken at the sources of the
Güejar River
Güejar River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
Geography
Güejar River flows from the Cordillera Oriental.Philippe Conrad, ''Gold in the Jungle'', 1990, p. 225
See also
*List of rivers of Colombia
Atlantic Oce ...
and near
San Juan de los Llanos, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Aricagua - once spoken in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Achagua - spoken on the
Apure River
The Apure River is a river of southwestern Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the Sarare and Uribante near Guasdualito, in Venezuela, at , and flowing across the Llanos into the Orinoco. It provides significant transportation in the area.
Orig ...
and
Arauca River in the department of Boyacá and territory of Meta, Colombia.
*Piapoco / Mitua / Dzáse - spoken on the
Guaviare River, territory of Vaupés, Colombia.
*Cabere / Cabre - once spoken on the
Teviare River and
Zama River, Vichada territory.
*Maniba / Camaniba - spoken by a little known tribe that lived on the middle course of the
Guaviare River, Vaupés territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Amarizana - extinct language once spoken on the
Vera River
Vera may refer to:
Names
*Vera (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)
* Vera (given name), a given name (including a list of people and fictional characters with the name)
**Vera (), archbishop of the archdiocese of Tarra ...
and
Aguas Blancas River, territory of Meta.
;Maypure group
*Maypure - extinct language once spoken in the village of
Maipures, Vichada territory, Colombia. Inhabitants now speak only Spanish.
*Avani / Abane - once spoken on the
Auvana River and
Tipapa River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. (Gilij 1780-1784, vol. 3, p. 383, only six words.)
;Guinau group
*Baníva - language spoken on the
Orinoco River, especially in the village of
San Fernando de Atabapo
San Fernando de Atabapo is a town in southern Venezuela on the border with Colombia. It was the capital city of the Amazonas state until the early 1900s. The population in 1997 was approximately 5,000.
In the early twentieth century it was rul ...
, Amazonas territory, Venezuela.
*Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the
Atabapo River in the village of Yavita.
;Guinau group
*Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the
Caura River and
Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct.
;Baré group
*Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the
Casiquiare River
The Casiquiare river () is a distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world's largest r ...
, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Uarequena - spoken on the
Guainía River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
*Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the
Caiarí River and on the
Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil.
*Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
.
*Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil.
*Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the
Caiarí River and
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
and on the middle course of the
Aiari River
Aiari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
{{AmazonasBR-river-stub ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
in the village of
Seringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Mapanai / Ira-tapuya - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
near
Cachoeira Yandú
Cachoeira (Portuguese, meaning waterfall) is an inland municipality of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguaçu River. The town exports sugar, cotton, and tobacco and is a thriving commercial and industrial centre.
The municipality contains 56% of t ...
, state of Amazonas.
*Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the
Cubate River, state of Amazonas.
*Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the
Aiari River
Aiari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
{{AmazonasBR-river-stub ...
, state of Amazonas.
;Ipéca group
*Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia.
*Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the
Arara-paraná River.
*Curipaco - spoken on the
Guainía River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
*Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the
Puitana River.
*Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
;Tariana group
*Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of
Ipanoré and
Yauareté on the
Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia.
*Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.)
*Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the
Cananari River and on the middle course of the
Apaporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct.
;Mandauáca group
*Mandauáca / Maldavaca - spoken on the
Baria River,
Capabury River, and
Pasimoni River
The Pasimoni River ( es, Rio Pasimoni) is a river in the state of Amazonas, Venezuela. It is a tributary of the Casiquiare canal, in turn a tributary of the Rio Negro.
The Pasimoni forms on the northern slope of the Cerro de la Neblina and flows ...
, Amazonas territory, Venezuela.
*Cunipúsana - once spoken in Amazonas territory on the
Siapa River
Siapa River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Amazon River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries inden ...
. (Unattested.)
;Manáo group
*Manáo / Oremanao / Manoa - extinct language once spoken around the modern city of
Manaus
Manaus () is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Amazonas. It is the seventh-largest city in Brazil, with an estimated 2020 population of 2,219,580 distributed over a land area of about . Located at the east center of the s ...
on the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Arina - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the
Marauiá River, Amazonas state. (Unattested.)
*Cariay / Carihiahy - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
,
Araçá River, and
Padauari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
*Bahuana - spoken between the
Padauari River and
Araçá River. (Unattested.)
*Uaranacoacena - extinct language once spoken between the
Branco River,
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, and
Araçá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
and
Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only
Lingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.)
*Dapatarú - once spoken between the
Uatuma River and
Urubu River and on the island of
Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Aniba - once spoken on the
Aniba River
''Aniba'' is an American neotropical flowering plant genus in the family Lauraceae. They are present in low and mountain cloud forest in Caribbean islands, Central America, and northern to central South America.
Description
They are shr ...
and around
Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.)
*Caboquena - once spoken on the
Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
. (Unattested.)
*Seden - once spoken between the
Uatuma River and
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
. (Unattested.)
;Uirina group
*Uirina - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Marari River
Marari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
{{AmazonasBR-river-stub ...
, territory of Rio Branco.
*Yabaána / Jabâ-ana / Hobacana - language of a tribe in the territory of Rio Branco, on the
Marauiá River and
Cauaburi River.
*Anauyá - spoken by a little known tribe on the
Castaño River
Castaño is a Spanish surname meaning "auburn".
*Carlos Castaño Gil (1965–2004), founder of the Peasant Self-Defense Forces of Córdoba and Urabá (ACCU), an extreme right paramilitary organization in Colombia
*Carlos Castaño Panadero (born 19 ...
, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
;Chiriána group
*Chiriána / Barauána - spoken between the
Marari River
Marari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
{{AmazonasBR-river-stub ...
and
Demini River, territory of Rio Branco.
;Yukúna group
*Yukúna - spoken on the
Miritíparaná River, Amazonas territory, Colombia.
*Matapí - spoken in the same region, Amazonas territory, near
Campoamor. (Unattested.)
*Guarú / Garú - spoken on the
Mamurá River,
Cuama River, and
Meta River, territory of Caquetá, Colombia.
;Resigaro group
*Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the
Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana.
;Araicú group
*Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the
Juruá River and
Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the
Juruá River, Amazonas.
;Araicú group
*Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Jandiatuba River
Jandiatuba River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
Tributaries of the Amazon River
{{AmazonasBR-r ...
and on the right bank of the
Jutai River, Amazonas.
;Uainumá group
*Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the
Upi River, a tributary of the
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as well ...
, Amazonas.
*Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as well ...
.
;Jumana group
*Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the
Puruê River
Puruê River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
* List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
{{AmazonasBR-river-stub ...
and
Juami River, Amazonas state.
*Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
,
Japurá River
The Japurá River or Caquetá River is a river about long in the Amazon basin. It rises in Colombia and flows eastward through Brazil to join the Amazon River.
Course
The river rises as the Caquetá River in the Andes in southwest Colombia.
...
, and
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as well ...
. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese.
;Cauishana group
*Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the
Tocantins River and on
Lake Mapari, Amazonas.
*Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the
Marauiá River. (Unattested.)
;Pre-Andine group
*Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the
Urubamba River and
Ucayali River, department of Cuzco, Peru.
*Machiganga / Ugunichire / Mashigango - spoken in the department of Cuzco on the
Mantaro River,
Apurimac River,
Urubamba River, and
Paucartambo River Paucartambo may refer to:
* Paucartambo Province
Paucartambo Province (from Quechua: Pawqar Tampu, meaning "colo(u)red '' tambo''") is one of thirteen provinces in the Cusco Region in the southern highlands of Peru.
Boundaries
* North: Madre ...
. Dialects are:
**Chanchamayo - spoken on the
Perené River.
**Catongo - spoken on the
Tambo River.
**Machiringa - spoken on the
Apurimac River and
Ene River. (Unattested.)
*Piro / Simirinche - spoken in the
department of Loreto on the
Inuya River.
*Chontaquiro - spoken on the
Iaco River,
Caeté River, and
Chandless River
Chandless River is a river of Peru and the Acre state in western Brazil, named after the British explorer William Chandless. It is a tributary of the Purus River
The river originates in Peru.
After crossing the border into Brazil it flows in a ...
, territory of Acre, Brazil.
*Mashco / Sirineiri / Moeno - spoken on the
Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios, Peru.
*Curia - spoken on the
Murú River and
Embira River, Acre, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
*Quirineri - spoken on the
Paucartambo River Paucartambo may refer to:
* Paucartambo Province
Paucartambo Province (from Quechua: Pawqar Tampu, meaning "colo(u)red '' tambo''") is one of thirteen provinces in the Cusco Region in the southern highlands of Peru.
Boundaries
* North: Madre ...
and
Manu River, department of Cuzco (Oppenheim 1948).
*Maneteneri - extinct language from the
Purus River,
Aquirí River,
Caspatá River, and
Araçá River, Acre territory.
*Inapari / Mashco Piro - spoken between the
Tacutimani River and
Amigo River, department of Madre de Dios, now perhaps extinct.
*Huachipairi - extinct language once spoken on the
Cosñipata River and
Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios.
*Kushichineri / Cushitineri - spoken in Acre territory on the
Curumaha River by a small tribe.
*Cuniba - extinct language once spoken between the
Juruazinho River and
Jutaí River
The Jutaí River ( pt, Rio Jutaí) is a river in Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
Course
The river flows through the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion.
The Jutaí river runs northeast before reaching its mouth on the southern bank o ...
and on the
Mapuá River
The Mapuá River ( pt, Rio Mapuá) is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a left tributary of the Aramá River.
Course
The Mapuá River rises on the island of Marajó in the delta region where the Amazon and Tocantins
Toca ...
, state of Amazonas.
*Puncuri - spoken on the
Puncuri River, Acre. (Unattested.)
*Kanamare / Canamirim - spoken in the same territory on the Acre,
Irariapé River and
Abuña River, now probably extinct.
*Epetineri - once spoken on the
Pijiria River, tributary of the
Urubamba River, Peru. (Unattested.)
*Pucapucari - once spoken on the
Camisia River and
Tunquini River, Peru. (Unattested.)
*Tucurina - spoken by a few individuals on the
Igarapé Cuchicha River, a tributary of the
Chandless River
Chandless River is a river of Peru and the Acre state in western Brazil, named after the British explorer William Chandless. It is a tributary of the Purus River
The river originates in Peru.
After crossing the border into Brazil it flows in a ...
, Acre. (Unattested.)
;Ipurina group
*Ipurina / Apurimã / Kangiti - spoken along the
Purus River from the mouth of the
Sepatiní River to the mouth of the
Yaco River
Yaco is a location in the La Paz Department in Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia ...
, Amazonas.
*Casharari - spoken by a little known tribe inhabiting the tropical forests between the
Abuña River and
Ituxí River
Ituxi River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Purus River.
Course
The Ituxi River is in length.
It originates near Acrelândia in the state of Acre.
It is a blackwater river that flows through the ...
and on the tributaries,
Curequeta River and
Iquirí River, in Acre. (Unattested.)
;Apolista group
*Apolista / Lapachu / Aguachile - extinct language once spoken in the old mission of
Apolobamba, province of La Paz, Bolivia.
;Mojo group
*Mojo / Ignaciano / Morocosi - spoken on the
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
and on the plains of
Mojos, Beni province, Bolivia.
*Baure / Chiquimiti - spoken on the
Blanco River and around the city of
Baures
Baures is a village in Iténez Province, Beni Department, in northern Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the ...
in the same region.
*Muchojeone - extinct language once spoken at the old mission El Carmen in Beni province, Bolivia.
*Suberiono - extinct language once spoken west of the
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
and the
Guapay River, Bolivia. (Unattested.)
*Pauna - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Baures River
The Baures River is a river in Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, ...
, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
*Paicone - extinct language from the sources of the
Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
;Paresi group
*Sarave / Zarabe - spoken on the
Verde River and
Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia, now perhaps extinct.
*Parecí / Arití / Maimbari / Mahibarez - language with dialects:
**Caxinití - spoken on the
Sumidouro River,
Sepotuba River, and
Sucuriú River, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
**Waimaré - spoken in Mato Grosso on the
Verde River and
Timalatía River.
**Kozariní / Pareci-Cabixi - spoken in Mato Grosso on the
Juba River
The Jubba River or Juba River ( so, Wabiga Jubba) is a river in southern Somalia which flows through the autonomous region of Jubaland. It begins at the border with Ethiopia, where the Dawa and Ganale Dorya rivers meet, and flows directly south ...
,
Cabaçal River,
Jaurú River,
Guaporé River,
Verde River,
Papagaio River,
Burití River, and
Juruena River
The Juruena River ( pt, Rio Juruena) is a long river in west-central Brazil, in the state of Mato Grosso.
Course
The Juruena originates in the Parecis plateau.
Within Mato Grosso the river defines the eastern boundary of the Igarapés do Jurue ...
.
**Uariteré - spoken on the
Pimenta Bueno River
The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia
Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is t ...
, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)
;Chané group
*Chané / Izoceño - formerly spoken on the
Itiyuro River, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.)
*Guaná / Layano - once spoken on the
Yacaré River and
Galván River
Galvan is an Irish surname. Irish surnames have had their original forms altered in many ways. Before being translated into English, Galvan appeared as O Gealbhain, derived from the words "geal," which means "bright," and "ban," which means "white. ...
, Paraguay, now on the
Miranda River
The Miranda River (Portuguese, Rio Miranda, variant name Rio Mondego) is a river of Mato Grosso do Sul state in southwestern Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraguay River. The river flows north and south, and forms the border between Brazil and ...
, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
*Terena - spoken in Mato Grosso on the
Miranda River
The Miranda River (Portuguese, Rio Miranda, variant name Rio Mondego) is a river of Mato Grosso do Sul state in southwestern Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraguay River. The river flows north and south, and forms the border between Brazil and ...
and
Jijui River.
*Echoaladí / Choarana - extinct language once spoken in Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
*Quiniquinao / Equiniquinao - once spoken near Albuquerque, now by only a few families on the Posto Cachoeirinha near
Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul
Miranda is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul
Mato Grosso do Sul () is one of the Midwestern states of Brazil. Neighboring Brazilian states are (from north clockwise) Mato Grosso, Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paul ...
.
;Waurá group
*Waurá - spoken on the
Batoví River (a tributary of the
Xingú River) Mato Grosso.
*Kustenáu - spoken in the same region, Mato Grosso, on the
Batoví River and
Jatobá River
The Jatobá River is a river of Ceará state in eastern Brazil.
See also
*List of rivers of Ceará
List of rivers in Ceará (Brazilian State).
The list is arranged by drainage basin from east to west, with respective tributaries indented unde ...
*Yaulapíti / Yawarapiti / Ualapiti - spoken between the
Meinacu River and
Curisevú River
The Curisevo River (or Curisevú River) is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil. It flows through the Xingu Indigenous Park
The Xingu Indigenous Park (, pronounced ) is an indigenous territory of Brazil, first created in 1961 as a nat ...
, Mato Grosso.
*Mehináku / Meinacu / Mináko - spoken between the
Batoví River and
Curisevú River
The Curisevo River (or Curisevú River) is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil. It flows through the Xingu Indigenous Park
The Xingu Indigenous Park (, pronounced ) is an indigenous territory of Brazil, first created in 1961 as a nat ...
.
*Agavotocueng - spoken by an unknown tribe between the
Curisevú River
The Curisevo River (or Curisevú River) is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil. It flows through the Xingu Indigenous Park
The Xingu Indigenous Park (, pronounced ) is an indigenous territory of Brazil, first created in 1961 as a nat ...
and
Culuene River
The Culuene River, or Kuluene River is a 600 km tributary of Xingu River in Mato Grosso, a state in western Brazil. The main economic activities in the region are agriculture and cattle farming.
It joins the Xingu from the southeast in the X ...
. (Unattested.)
;Marawan group
*Marawan / Maraon - spoken on the
Oiapoque River
The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá.
Course
The Oyapock runs through the Guianan moist for ...
and
Curipi River, Amapá territory.
*Caripurá / Karipuere - spoken in Amapá territory on the
Urucauá River.
*Palicur / Parikurú - once spoken on the middle course of the
Calçoene River and on the upper course of the
Casipore River, now on the
Urucauá River in Amapá territory.
*Caranariú - once spoken on the
Urucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.)
*Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on the
Uanarí River. (Unattested.)
*Macapá - once spoken on the
Camopi River and
Yaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of the
Pará River, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
*Tucujú - once spoken on the
Jarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
*Mapruan - once spoken on the
Oiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.)
;Aruan group
*Aruan / Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast of
Marajó Island
Marajó () is a large coastal island in the Pará, state of Pará, Brazil. It is the main and largest of the islands in the Marajó Archipelago. Marajó Island is separated from the mainland by Marajó Bay, Pará River, smaller rivers (especi ...
, Pará, later on the
Uaçá River
Uaçá River is a river of Amapá state in Brazil. It is a tributary of the Oiapoque River
The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guia ...
, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect.
*Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part of
Marajó Island
Marajó () is a large coastal island in the Pará, state of Pará, Brazil. It is the main and largest of the islands in the Marajó Archipelago. Marajó Island is separated from the mainland by Marajó Bay, Pará River, smaller rivers (especi ...
.
;Moríque group
*Moríque / Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on the
Javarí River.
;Chamicuro group
*Chamicuro - spoken on the
Chamicuro River,
department of Loreto, Peru.
*Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.)
*Aguano / Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of the
Huallaga River. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.)
*Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of the
Ucayali River and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.)
*Cutinana - once spoken on the
Samiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
*Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.)
;Lorenzo group
*Amoishe / Amlsha / Amuescha / Amage / Lorenzo - once spoken on the
Paucartambo River Paucartambo may refer to:
* Paucartambo Province
Paucartambo Province (from Quechua: Pawqar Tampu, meaning "colo(u)red '' tambo''") is one of thirteen provinces in the Cusco Region in the southern highlands of Peru.
Boundaries
* North: Madre ...
and
Colorado River
The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. s ...
, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken.
*Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of the
Chinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.)
*Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of the
Huallaga River between
Coyumba and
Monzón, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
*Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua near
Huánuco
Huánuco (; qu, Wanuku) is a city in central Peru. It had a population of 196,627 as of 2017 and in 2015 it had a population of 175,068. It is the capital of the Huánuco Region and the Huánuco District. It is the seat of the diocese of Hu� ...
. (Unattested.)
;Guahibo group
*Guahibo - language spoken by many tribes in Colombia and Venezuela on the
Meta River,
Arauca River,
Vichada River, and
Orinoco River.
*Dialects:
*Cuiloto - spoken on the
Cuiloto River and
Cravo Norte River, Arauca territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cuiva - spoken on the
Meta River, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Amorúa - spoken in the same region on the
Bita River Bita may refer to :
;Places and jurisdictions
* Bita (Africa), an Ancient city, former bishopric and Latin Catholic titular see in Roman North Africa
* an Archaic name for the Latin Catholic titular see of Bida (North Africa)
* Bita, a Romanian ...
. (Unattested.)
*Chiricoa - spoken on the
Ele River and
Lipa River, department of Arauca, on the
Cravo Norte River and
Arauca River, Arauca territory, Colombia, and on the
Cinaruquito River,
Cinamco River,
Capanaparo River
Capanaparo River is a river of Colombia and Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. In Venezuela together with the Cinaruco River, other smaller rivers and the area around them they form the Santos Luzardo National Park since 1988.
Se ...
, and
Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Hildebrandt ms.)
*Sicuane - spoken on the
Tuparro River, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cuiapo Pihibi - spoken on the
Tomo River, Vichada territory. (Unattested.)
*Yamu - spoken on the right bank of the
Ariari River
The Ariari River is a river of Colombia, located entirely within the Meta Department. Part of the Orinoco River basin, it merges with the Guayabero River to forms the Guaviare River, one of the principle tributaries of the Orinoco.
See also
*Lis ...
, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Catarro - spoken in the Meta territory on the
Yucavo River and in the old mission of
San Miguel de Salivas. (Unattested.)
*Chumya / Bisanigua - language, now probably extinct, once spoken on the
Güejar River
Güejar River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
Geography
Güejar River flows from the Cordillera Oriental.Philippe Conrad, ''Gold in the Jungle'', 1990, p. 225
See also
*List of rivers of Colombia
Atlantic Oce ...
and in
El Piñal
El Piñal ( pt, Pinhal, ) was a port in the Pearl River Delta area that was temporarily granted to the Spanish from 1598 to 1600 by Cantonese officials of the Ming dynasty. Seen as a threat to the Portuguese monopoly on the 16th century China trad ...
.
*Guayabero / Guyaverun - spoken in the Meta territory on the
Guayabero River
The Guayabero River is a river of Colombia. It is primarily located in the Meta Department, forming a portion of its border with the Guaviare Department. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. Its confluence with the Ariari River gives rise to t ...
.
Arawakan vs. Maipurean
In 1783, the Italian priest
Filippo Salvatore Gilii
Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Spanish: Felipe Salvador Gilij) (1721–1789) was an Italian Jesuit priest who lived in the Province of Venezuela (in present day central Venezuela) on the Orinoco River. Gilii is a highly celebrated figure in early South ...
recognized the unity of the
Maipure language
Maipure (Maypure, Mejepure), was a language once spoken along the Ventuari, Sipapo, and Autana rivers of Amazonas and, as a lingua franca, in the Upper Orinoco
The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its draina ...
of the Orinoco and
Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family ''Maipure''. It was renamed ''Arawak'' by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after
Arawak
The Arawak are a group of indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Greate ...
in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are ''Maipurean'' or ''Maipuran'' and ''Arawak'' or ''Arawakan''.
The term ''Arawakan'' is now used in two senses. South American scholars use ''Aruák'' for
the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the
Guajiboan
Guajiboan (also Guahiban, Wahívoan, Guahiboan) is a language family spoken in the Orinoco River region in eastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela, a savanna region known as the Llanos.
Family division
Guajiboan consists of 5 languages:
* ...
and
Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name ''Maipurean'' to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called ''core Arawak(an)'' or ''Arawak(an) proper'' instead.
Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:
he Arawakan
He or HE may refer to:
Language
* He (pronoun), an English pronoun
* He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ
* He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets
* He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the ''living'' Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.
Characteristics
The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix ''nu-'', but Arawak proper has ''ta-''. Other commonalities include a second-person singular ''pi-'', relative ''ka-'', and negative ''ma-''.
The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.
Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the ''Quinquinaos'', the ''Layanas'', etc. (This is the ''Moho-Mbaure'' group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the ''Aruan'' people spoke an Arawak dialect. The peninsula of Goajira (north of
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
) is occupied by the
Goajires tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Goajires.
C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's ''British Guiana'' manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.
Phonology
Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):
For more detailed notes on specific languages see Aikhenvald (1999) pp. 76–77.
Shared morphological traits
General morphological type
Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.
Alienable and inalienable possession
Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.
[Aikhenvald (1999), p. 82.] This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:
:
:
Classifiers
Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.
[Aikhenvald (1999), p. 83.] The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:
:
:
Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb
Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb. The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:
:
:
:
The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:
Some examples
The Arawak word for corn is ''marisi,'' and various forms of this word are found among the related languages:
:
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They spe ...
, ''marisi'', Guyana.
:
Taíno
The Taíno were a historic Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the ...
, ''mahisi'', Greater Antilles.
:
Cauixana, ''mazy'', Rio Jupura.
:
Wayuu, ''maikki'', Goajira Peninsula.
: Passes, ''mary'', Lower Jupura.
:
Puri
Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as '' ...
, ''maky'', Rio Paraiba.
:
Wauja
The Waura or Wauja (waujá) are an indigenous people of Brazil. Their language, Waura, is an Arawakan language. They live in the region near the Upper Xingu River, in the Xingu Indigenous Park, and had a population of 487 in 2010.
History
The W ...
, ''mainki'', Upper Xingu River.
Geographic distribution
Arawak is the largest family in the Americas with the respect to number of languages. The Arawakan languages are spoken by peoples occupying a large swath of territory, from the eastern slopes of the central
Andes Mountains
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
in
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = National seal
, national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
and
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
, across the
Amazon basin
The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Boli ...
of
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
, northward into
Suriname
Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the nor ...
,
Guyana
Guyana ( or ), officially the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern mainland of South America. Guyana is an indigenous word which means "Land of Many Waters". The capital city is Georgetown. Guyana is bordered by the ...
,
French Guiana
French Guiana ( or ; french: link=no, Guyane ; gcr, label= French Guianese Creole, Lagwiyann ) is an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France on the northern Atlantic coast of South America in the Guianas ...
,
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
,
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...
and
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the ...
on the northern coast of South America, and as far north as
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the coun ...
,
Honduras
Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. The republic of Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Oce ...
,
Belize
Belize (; bzj, Bileez) is a Caribbean and Central American country on the northeastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a wa ...
and
Guatemala
Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by Hon ...
. The languages used to be found in
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest ...
and
Paraguay
Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to t ...
as well.
Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago, settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the
Cusabo and
Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.
Taíno
The Taíno were a historic Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the ...
, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...
,
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...
,
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and s ...
,
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
,
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of Hispa ...
, and the
Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the a ...
. A few Taino words are still used by
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ...
,
Spanish, or
Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the
Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno
refugee
A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution. s, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.
Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent. It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in
Honduras
Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. The republic of Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Oce ...
,
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the coun ...
,
Guatemala
Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by Hon ...
and
Belize
Belize (; bzj, Bileez) is a Caribbean and Central American country on the northeastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a wa ...
combined.
Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent ''Ta-''Arawakan (''Ta-''Maipurean) groups:
Wayuu oajiro with about 300,000 speakers; and
Garifuna
The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Cr ...
, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next;
Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes
Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and
Yanesha' mueshawith 6–8,000.
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Arawakan languages.
Proto-language
Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):
[Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed fro]
DiACL
9 February 2020.
For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016)
and Ramirez (2019),
[Ramirez, Henri (2019). ]
Enciclopédia das línguas arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados
'. (in press) see the corresponding
Portuguese article.
See also
*
Arawak peoples
The Arawak are a group of indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Greate ...
*
English words of Arawakan origin
*
Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Notes
References
*
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1999). The Arawak language family. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), ''The Amazonian languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; .
* de Goeje, C. H., (1928). ''The Arawak language of Guiana'', Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks.
*
Deniker, Joseph. (1900). ''The races of man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography''.
* Garifuna. (2015). In M. P. Lewis, G. F. Simmons, & C. D. Fennig (Eds.), ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (18th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
*
Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. .
*
Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R.E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the world's languages'' (pp. 46–76). London:
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law ...
.
* Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Arawakan". ''Glottolog''. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
* Rudes, Blair A
"Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taino" paper presented at ''Language Variety in the South III'' conference, Tuscaloosa, AL, 16 April 2004.
*
Further reading
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. .
* Derbyshire, Desmond C. (1992). Arawakan languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), ''International encyclopedia of linguistics'' (Vol. 1, pp. 102–105). New Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). ''Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América'' (pp. 223). Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
* Payne, David. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakan) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullum (Eds.), ''Handbook of Amazonian languages'' (Vol. 3, pp. 355–499). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
* Solís Fonseca, Gustavo. (2003). Lenguas en la amazonía peruana. Lima: edición por demanda.
* Zamponi, Raoul. (2003). Maipure, Munich: Lincom Europa. .
;Lexicons
*Cadete, C. (1991). Dicionário Wapichana-Português/Português-Wapishana. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
*Captain, D. M.; Captain, L. B. (2005). Diccionario Basico: Ilustrado; Wayuunaiki-Espanol ; Espanol-Wayuunaiki. Bogota: Edit. Fundación para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Marginados.
*Corbera Mori, A. (2005). As línguas Waurá e Mehinakú do Brasil Central. In: A. S. A. C. Cabral & S. C. S. de Oliveira (eds.), Anais do IV Congresso Internacional da ABRALIN, 795-804. Brasília: Associação Brasileira de Lingüística, Universidade de Brasília.
*Couto, F. P. (2012). Contribuições para a fonética e fonologia da língua Manxineru (Aruák). Brasília: Universidade de Brasília. (Masters dissertation).
*Couto, F. P. (n.d.). Dados do manxineri. (Manuscript).
*Crevels, M.; Van Der Voort, H. (2008). The Guaporé-Mamoré region as a linguistic area. In: P. Muysken (ed.), From linguistic areas to areal linguistics (Studies in Language Companion Series, 90), 151-179. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
*de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913b). Linguistique Bolivienne: La langue Lapaču ou Apolista. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 45:512-531.
*de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913c). Linguistique bolivienne. La langue Saraveka. Journal de la Sociétè des Americanistes de Paris, 10:497-540.
*Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, A. (eds.) (1999). The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Duff-Tripp, M. (1998). Diccionario: Yanesha' (Amuesha) - Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47.) Lima: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
*Ekdahl, E. M.; Butler, N. E. (1969). Terêna dictionary. Brasília: SIL. ELIAS ORTIZ, S. (1945). Los Indios Yurumanguíes. Acta Americana, 4:10-25.
*Facundes, S. Da S. (2000). The Language of the Apurinã People of Brazil (Maipure/Arawak). University of New York at Buffalo. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Farabee, W. C. (1918). The Central Arawaks (University Museum Anthropological Publication, 9). Philadelphia: University Museum.
*Fargetti, C. M. (2001). Estudo Fonológico e Morfossintático da Língua Juruna. Campinas: UNICAMP. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Gill, W. (1993
970
Year 970 ( CMLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 970th year of the Common Era (CE) and ''Anno Domini'' designations, the 970th year of the 1st millennium, the 70th year ...
. Diccionario Trinitario-Castellano y Castellano-Trinitario. San Lorenzo de Mojos: Misión Evangélica Nuevas Tribus.
*Green, D.; Green, H. G. (1998). Yuwit kawihka dicionário Palikúr - Português. Belém: SIL.
*Jolkesky, M. P. V. (2016). Uma reconstrução do proto-mamoré-guaporé (família arawak). LIAMES, 16.1:7-37.
*Kindberg, L. D. (1980). Diccionario asháninca (Documento de Trabajo, 19). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Mehináku, M. (n.d.). Vocabulário mehinaku. (Manuscript).
*Mosonyi, J. C. (1987). El idioma yavitero: ensayo de gramática y diccionario. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Nies, J., et alii (1986). Diccionario Piro. Tokanchi Gikshijikowaka-Steno (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 22). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Ott, W.; Burke de Ott, R. (1983). Diccionario Ignaciano y Castellano: con apuntes gramaticales. Cochabamba: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
*Parker, S. (1995). Datos de la lengua Iñapari. (Documento de Trabajo, 27). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Parker, S. (2010). Chamicuro data: exhaustive list. (SIL Language and Culture Documentation and Description, 12). SIL International.
*Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
*Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
*Ramirez, H. (2001b). Línguas Arawak da Amazônia Setentrional. Manaus: EDUA.
*Shaver, H. (1996). Diccionario nomatsiguenga-castellano, castellano-nomatsiguenga (Serie Linguística Peruana, 41). Pucallpa: Ministerio de Educación & Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Snell, B. (1973). Pequeño diccionario machiguenga-castellano. Yarinacocha: SIL.
*Solís, G.; Snell, B. E. (2005). Tata onkantakera niagantsipage anianeegiku (Diccionario escolar Machiguenga). Lima, Perú: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Souza, I. (2008). Koenukunoe emo'u: A língua dos índios Kinikinau. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Suazo, S. (2011). Lila Garifuna: Diccionario Garífuna: Garifuna - Español. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Litografía López.
*Trevor R. A. (1979). Vocabulario Resígaro (Documento de Trabajo, 16). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Tripp, M. D. (1998). Diccionario Yanesha' (Amuesha)-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47). Lima: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Wapishana Language Project. (2000). Scholars's dictionary and grammar of the Wapishana language. Porto Velho: SIL International.
*Durbin, M.; Seijas, H. (1973). A Note on Panche, Pijao, Pantagora (Palenque), Colima and Muzo. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39:47-51.
;Data sets
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo.
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1)
ata set Zenodo.
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1)
ata set Zenodo.
;Reconstructions
*Matteson, E. (1972). Proto Arawakan. In: E. Matteson et al. (eds.), ''Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages'', 160-242. The Hague and Paris: Mouton.
*Noble, G. K. (1965). ''Proto-Arawakan and its descendants''. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
*Valenti, D. M. (1986). ''A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System.'' New York University. (Doctoral thesis).
External links
Arawak Languages - Linguistics - Oxford BibliographiesSouth American Phonological Inventory Database
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Language families
Macro-Arawakan languages