Apocynaceae (from ''

Apocynum ''Apocynum'', commonly known as dogbane or Indian hemp, is a small genus of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae. Its name comes from Ancient Greek , from "away" and "dog", referring to dogbane (''Cionura erecta''), which was used to poiso ...

'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

s that includes

tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...

s, shrubs, herbs,

stem succulent Stem succulents are fleshy succulent columnar shaped plants which conduct photosynthesis mainly through their stems rather than their leaves.Frerea indica, a Stem Succulent CAM Plant with Deciduous C₃ Leaves, Otto L. Lange and Margit Zuber, Oec ...

s, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison Members of the family are native to the

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

an,

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

n, Australian, and American

tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referr ...

or subtropics, with some temperate members. The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as

Asclepiadoideae The Asclepiadoideae are a subfamily of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Formerly, they were treated as a separate family under the name Asclepiadaceae, e.g. by APG II, and known as the milkweed family. They form a group of perennial herbs, twi ...

) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here. Many species are tall trees found in

tropical forest Tropical forests (a.k.a. jungle) are forested landscapes in tropical regions: ''i.e.'' land areas approximately bounded by the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds. Some tropical fore ...

s, but some grow in tropical dry (

xeric Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (ancient Greek xērós, “dry") shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this h ...

) environments. Also

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wid ...

herbs from temperate zones occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing alkaloids and

cardiac glycosides Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for co ...

, those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as '' Adenium'', bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as ''

Pachypodium ''Pachypodium'' is a genus of succulent spine-bearing trees and shrubs, native to Madagascar and Africa. It belongs to the family Apocynaceae. Genus characteristics All ''Pachypodium'' are succulent plants that exhibit, to varying degrees, t ...

'', have milky latex apart from their sap.

Taxonomy

As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of ''Apocynaceae'': Where we stand in 2012," '' Bot. J. Linn. Soc.,'' 171(3, March), pp. 482–490, se

accessed 22 June 2015. *

Apocynoideae Apocynoideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales). It contains about 78 genera with roughly 860 species. Several genera are of pharmacological interest - notably those - such as Strophanthus - which have f ...

Burnett, 1835 *

Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the Asclepiadaceae) * Periplocoideae Endl., 1838 * Rauvolfioideae Kostel., 1834 * Secamonoideae Endl., 1838 The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (

APG III APG is an abbreviation with several different meanings: * Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army installation in Aberdeen, Maryland, also ** Phillips Army Airfield, the airfield of the above, from its IATA airport code * Aboriginal Provisiona ...

) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy. An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.

Distribution and habitat

Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions: *In the

s and swamps of

Indomalaya The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...

: small to very tall

evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, whic ...

s up to tall, often with buttress roots, such as '' Alstonia'' and '' Dyera'' *In northern Australia: small evergreen trees such as '' Alstonia'', '' Alyxia'', ''

Cerbera ''Cerbera'' is a genus of evergreen small trees or shrubs, native to tropical Asia, Australia, Madagascar, and various islands in the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. Three trees of this genus are mangroves, '' Cerbera floribunda'', ...

'' and ''

Ochrosia ''Ochrosia'' is a genus of flowering plants, first described in 1789. It is in the family Apocynaceae, native to Southeast Asia, Australia, and various islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. ;Species # '' Ochrosia ackeringae'' – Indonesia ...

'' *In deciduous forests of Africa, India and

Indo-China Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...

: smaller trees such as ''

Carissa ''Carissa'' is a genus of shrubs or small trees native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Australia and Asia. Until recently about 100 species were listed, but most of them have been relegated to the status of synonyms or assigned ...

'', '' Wrightia'' and '' Holarrhena'' *In tropical America, India, Myanmar and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as '' Rauvolfia'', '' Tabernaemontana'' and '' Acokanthera'' *In Central America: '' Plumeria'', or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent *In South America, Africa and Madagascar: many lianas, such as ''

Landolphia ''Landolphia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae first described as a genus in 1806. They take the form of vines that scramble over host trees. ''Landolphia'' is native to tropical Africa Africa is the world's s ...

'' *In the Mediterranean region: '' Nerium'', with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (''

Nerium oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), most commonly known as oleander or nerium, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the ge ...

'') *The only genera found in temperate

away from the Mediterranean are ''

Vinca ''Vinca'' (; Latin: ''vincire'' "to bind, fetter") is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The English name periwinkle is shared with the related genus ''Catharanthus'' (an ...

'' (Apocynoideae) and ''

Vincetoxicum ''Vincetoxicum'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Although the species in ''Vincetoxicum'' have sometimes been included in ''Cynanchum'', chemical and molecular evidence shows that ''Vincetoxicum'' is more closely related to ''Tylo ...

'' (Asclepiadoideae). Also '' Asclepias syriaca'' is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of

Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...

). *In North America: ''

'', dogbane or Indian hemp, including ''

Apocynum cannabinum ''Apocynum cannabinum'' (dogbane, amy root, hemp dogbane, prairie dogbane, Indian hemp, rheumatism root, or wild cotton) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows throughout much of North America—in the southern half of Canada and throughou ...

'', a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, ''

Amsonia ''Amsonia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1788. It is native primarily to North America with one species in East Asia and another in the eastern Mediterranean The Mediterra ...

'', herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers. *In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above for the entire island: ''

'' and '' Fockea''

Description

Growth pattern

The dogbane/milkweed family includes annual plants, perennial herbs,

s, woody shrubs,

s, or vines. Most exude a milky latex when cut.

Leaves and stems

Leaves are simple. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem ( alternate),Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium
/ref> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in whorls). When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it ( decussate). There is no

stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole). Stipules are considered part of the anatomy of the leaf of a typical flowering plant, although in many speci ...

(a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes fingerlike.

Inflorescence and fruit

Flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

s have radial symmetry (

actinomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...

), and are borne in heads that are cymes or racemes, or are solitary in axils. They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens. The

style Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to: * Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable * Design, the process of creating something * Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...

head is swollen. The pollen is transported in foam. The ovary is usually superior, ''bicarpellary,'' and ''apocarpous,'' with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of '' Rhigospira quadrangularis'' show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen) The fruit is a drupe, a berry, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle. The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.

Ecology

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the Queen Butterfly (''Danaus gilippus'').

Toxicity

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing

cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for c ...

s— ''

'', '' Nerium'', '' Asclepias'', '' Cascabela'', ''

Strophanthus ''Strophanthus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1802. It is native primarily to tropical Africa, extending to South Africa, with a few species in Asia from southern India to New Guinea and ...

,'' '' Acokanthera'', ''

,'' '' Thevetia,'' etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below). Alkaloid-producing species like '' Rauvolfia serpentina,'' ''

Catharanthus roseus ''Catharanthus roseus'', commonly known as bright eyes, Cape periwinkle, graveyard plant, Madagascar periwinkle, old maid, pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native and endemic to M ...

,'' and ''

Tabernanthe iboga ''Tabernanthe iboga'' (iboga) is an evergreen rainforest shrub native to Central Africa. A member of the Apocynaceae family indigenous to Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated across Central Africa ...

'' are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important natural products—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual

prescription drugs A prescription drug (also prescription medication or prescription medicine) is a pharmaceutical drug that legally requires a medical prescription to be dispensed. In contrast, over-the-counter drugs can be obtained without a prescription. The re ...

Cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for c ...

s, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include '' Acokanthera'', ''

'', ''

'', '' Nerium'', '' Thevetia'' and ''

.'' '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid reserpine, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. ''

'' yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer. ''

Voacanga africana ''Voacanga africana'' is a small tree native to tropical Africa belonging to the family Apocynaceae that grows to in height and bears leaves that are up to in length. The yellow or white flowers are succeeded by paired, follicular, dehiscent ...

, and Tabernaemontana undulata'' contain the alkaloid

ibogaine Ibogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in plants in the family Apocynaceae such as '' Tabernanthe iboga'', '' Voacanga africana'', and '' Tabernaemontana undulata''. It is a psychedelic with dissociative properties. Pre ...

, which is a psychedelic drug which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects, with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.

Ajmalicine Ajmalicine, also known as δ-yohimbine or raubasine, is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. It has been marketed under numerous brand names including Card-Lamuran, Circolene, Cristanyl, Duxil, Duxor, Hydroxysarp ...

, an alkaloid found in '' Rauvolfia'' spp., ''

'', and '' Mitragyna speciosa'', is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. Many genera are grown as

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that ...

s, including ''

'' (bluestar), '' Nerium'' (oleander), ''

'' (periwinkle), ''

'' (Natal plum), '' Allamanda'' (golden trumpet), '' Plumeria'' (frangipani), '' Thevetia'', '' Mandevilla'' (Savannah flower), and '' Adenium'' (desert-rose). In addition, the genera ''

'', '' Carpodinus'', and '' Mascarenhasia'' have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber. (See Congo rubber). There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of '' Fernaldia pandurata'' (common name: ') is edible. ''

'' (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous. The genus ''

'' was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans. The aromatic fruit juice from '' Saba comorensis'' (syn. ''Landolphia comorensis'', the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink. Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of ''

'' and certain ''

Voacanga ''Voacanga'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae found in Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 13 species:Search for "Voacanga", ;Species # '' Voacanga africana ...

'' species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The

-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction. The juice of '' Acokanthera'' species such as '' A. venenata'' and the milky juice of the

Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...

n ''

'' have been used as poison for arrow tips. Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

Gallery

Flowers

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 2445.JPG, '' Acokanthera oblongifolia'' File:Adenium obesum3.jpg, ''

Adenium obesum ''Adenium obesum'' is a poisonous species of flowering plant belonging to the tribe Nerieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It is native to the Sahel regions south of the Sahara (from Mauritania and Senegal to ...

'' File:Allamanda cathartica flowers 2.JPG, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:糖膠樹(黑板樹) Alstonia scholaris -香港中央圖書館 Hong Kong Central Library- (9237370435).jpg, '' Alstonia scholaris'' File:Alyxia.oliviformis1web.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, '' Amsonia tabernaemontana'' File:Ancylobothrys capensis08.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-017.jpg, '' Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco'' illustration in Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen File:Caralluma burchardii IMGP8282.JPG, '' Apteranthes burchardii'' File:Asclepias curassavica 1854.jpg, '' Asclepias curassavica'' File:Caralluma acutangula Bild0685.jpg, '' Caralluma acutangula'' File:Caralluma europaea - cvet.jpg, '' Caralluma europaea'' File:Caralluma socotrana 01.jpg, '' Caralluma socotrana'' File:Cascabela thevetia1MTFL.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn. ''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Catharanthus roseus-IMG 5432.jpg, ''

'' File:Cerbera manghas flower.jpg, '' Cerbera manghas'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (2618297906).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Cycladeniahumilisjonesii.JPG, '' Cycladenia humilis var.jonesii'' File:Holarrhena pubescens flowers.jpg, '' Holarrhena pubescens'' File:Hoodia gordonii 1DS-II 2-3327.jpg, '' Hoodia gordonii'' File:Hoya FR 2013.jpg, '' Hoya carnosa'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander pink.jpg, ''

'' File:Ochrosia borbonica 02.JPG, ''

Ochrosia borbonica ''Ochrosia borbonica'' is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to Mauritius and Réunion, and naturalized in Guangdong Province in China. The species is listed as endangered. References

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium lamerei 5Dsr 1733.jpg, ''

Pachypodium lamerei ''Pachypodium lamerei'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is a stem succulent, photosynthesizing mainly through its trunk, and comes from the island of Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa. It has large thorns and ...

'' File:Comarca Oeste, Las Palmas, Spain - panoramio.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' growth habit File:Fiore di Periploca graeca.jpg, ''

Periploca graeca ''Periploca graeca'', the silkvine, is an ornamental plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to southern Europe and the Middle East, and is sparingly naturalized in scattered locations in the eastern United States The United State ...

'' File:Plumeria rubra L. (2257161947).jpg, '' Plumeria rubra'' File:Rhabdadenia madida.jpg, '' Rhabdadenia madida'' File:Rauvolfia serpentina 11.JPG, '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' File:Saba senegalensis 0002.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'' File:Secamone alpini00.jpg, '' Secamone alpini'' File:Aasblume Aug 2005.jpg, '' Stapelia gigantea'' File:Strophanthus speciosus 1DS-II 6026.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' File:Tabernaemontana divaricata flower in jaffna.JPG, '' Tabernaemontana divaricata'' File:Tabernanthe iboga MS 4098.jpg, ''

'' in flower and fruit. File:(MAD) T. jasminoides-1.jpg, '' Trachelospermum jasminoides'' File:Vinca minor beentree.jpg, ''

Vinca minor ''Vinca minor'' (common names lesser periwinkle or dwarf periwinkle) is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, native to central and southern Europe, from Portugal and France north to the Netherlands and the Baltic States, east to ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria flowers in Keesaraguda, AP W IMG 9109.jpg, ''

Wrightia tinctoria ''Wrightia tinctoria'', Pala indigo plant or dyer's oleander, is a flowering plant species in the genus ''Wrightia'' found in India, southeast Asia and Australia. It is found in dry and moist regions in its distribution. Various parts of the plan ...

'' File:Wrightia antidysenterica (2).JPG, ''

Wrightia antidysenterica ''Wrightia antidysenterica'', the coral swirl or tellicherry bark, is a flowering plant in the genus ''Wrightia''. ''Wrightia antidysenterica'' is sometimes confused with the species ''Holarrhena pubescens ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is a species ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria 09.JPG, ''

'' single flower

Fruits

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 03.jpg, '' Acokanthera oblongifolia'' File:Fruits in Adenuim Obesum Plant on Terrace garden.jpg, ''

'' File:Adenium obesum pod and seeds.jpg, ''

'' dehiscence of single fruit. File:Allamanda cathartica MHNT.jpg, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:Alstonia scholaris fruits.JPG, '' Alstonia scholaris'' File:Alyxia oliviformis fruit.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana container plant in fruit (paired follicles).jpg, '' Amsonia tabernaemontana'' containerised specimen in fruit File:Amsonia tabernaemontana single paired follicle detached from plant (pale side).jpg, ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'' single paired follicle detached from plant (paler, unsunned side) File:Ancylobothrys capensis, vrugte, Faerie Glen NR.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg, '' Asclepias syriaca'' dehiscent follicles (before unfurling of pappi) File:Asclepias curassavica 003.JPG, '' Asclepias curassavica'' dehiscent follicles shedding seeds with unfurled pappi File:Thevetia peruviana 04.JPG, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Thevetia peruviana - Fruits.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana''): dissection of toxic fruits. File:Cerbera tanghin - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-176.jpg, '' Cerbera manghas'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (6048993215).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Holarrhena pubescens fruits.jpg, '' Holarrhena pubescens'' File:Hoodia gordonii Frucht P1010402.JPG, '' Hoodia gordoniI'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis 9zz.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Ochrosia borbonica fruit 1.JPG, ''

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium namaquanum 1DS-II 1-C5587.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum'' File:Periploca graeca Silk Vine ღვედკეცი.JPG, ''

'' File:Plumeria alba (seed pods).jpg, '' Plumeria alba'' File:സർപഗന്ധി വിത്തുകൾ 13.JPG, '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' File:Saba senegalensis MS 1367.JPG, '' Saba senegalensis'' unripe fruit File:Saba senegalensis - fruit pulp sections.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'': dissection of ripe, edible fruit File:Secamone parvifolia 1DS-II 3-3506.jpg, '' Secamone parvifolia'' File:Stapelia gigantea 1DS-II 8834.jpg, '' Stapelia gigantea'' File:Strophanthus speciosus, vrugkapsule en sade, Manie van der Schijff BT, a.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' (dehiscence) File:Tabernaemontana catharinensis (1).JPG, '' Tabernaemontana catharinensis'' (dehiscence) File:Iboga.jpg, ''

'' File:Trachelospermum jasminoides fruits+seeds.jpg, '' Trachelospermum jasminoides'' (dehiscence) File:Trachelospermum jasminoides seeds.jpg, ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'': individual seeds, showing pappus File:Vinca major vima 002 php.jpg, ''

Vinca major ''Vinca major'', with the common names bigleaf periwinkle, large periwinkle, greater periwinkle and blue periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to the western Mediterranean. Growing to tall and spreading i ...

'' (seeds) File:Illustration Vinca minor0 clean.png, ''

'': botanical plate showing paired fruits (no. 5) File:Wrightia tinctoria 32.JPG, ''

Pachycaul species

File:Desert rose Adenium obesum in Tanzania 2259 Nevit.jpg, ''

'' growth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania File:Desert Rose (Adenium obesum), Ghana.jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' close-up of colossal specimen, Ghana File:Desert Rose, Socotra Is (17131661372).jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' trunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra File:Pachypodium lamerei 01.jpg, ''

'' wild specimen of maximum height (approx ) attained by species File:Pachypodium lamieri1MTFL.jpg, ''

'' in flower File:PachypodiumLamerei.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' mature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse File:Pachypodium namaquanum00.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum''

References

External links

Apocynaceae
i

* *