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The ''Annals'' ( la, Annales) by Roman historian and senator
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
is a history of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
from the reign of
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
to that of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
, the years AD 14–68. The ''Annals'' are an important source for modern understanding of the history of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD; it is Tacitus' final work, and modern historians generally consider it his greatest writing. Historian Ronald Mellor calls it "Tacitus's crowning achievement", which represents the "pinnacle of Roman historical writing". Tacitus' ''Histories'' and ''Annals'' together amounted to 30 books; although some scholars disagree about which work to assign some books to, traditionally 14 are assigned to ''Histories'' and 16 to ''Annals''. Of the 30 books referred to by
Jerome Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Christian priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is co ...
about half have survived. Modern scholars believe that as a Roman senator, Tacitus had access to '' Acta Senatus''—the Roman senate's records—which provided a solid basis for his work. Although Tacitus refers to part of his work as "my annals", the title of the work ''Annals'' used today was not assigned by Tacitus himself, but derives from its year-by-year structure. The name of the current manuscript seems to be "Books of History from the Death of the Divine Augustus" (').


Background and structure

The ''Annals'' was Tacitus' final work and provides a key source for modern understanding of the history of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
from the beginning of the reign of
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
in AD 14 to the end of the reign of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
, in AD 68. Tacitus wrote the ''Annals'' in at least 16 books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11 and 16 are missing. The period covered by the ''
Histories Histories or, in Latin, Historiae may refer to: * the plural of history * ''Histories'' (Herodotus), by Herodotus * ''The Histories'', by Timaeus * ''The Histories'' (Polybius), by Polybius * ''Histories'' by Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), ...
'' (written before the ''Annals'') starts at the beginning of the year AD 69, i.e. six months after the death of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
and continues to the death of
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
in 96. It is not known when Tacitus began writing the Annals, but he was well into writing it by AD 116.''The Annals: The Reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero'' by Cornelius Tacitus and J. C. Yardley Oxford pages ii to xxvii Modern scholars believe that as a senator, Tacitus had access to '' Acta Senatus'', the Roman senate's records, thus providing a solid basis for his work. Together the ''Histories'' and the ''Annals'' amounted to 30 books. These thirty books are referred to by Saint Jerome, and about half of them have survived. Although some scholars differ on how to assign the books to each work, traditionally fourteen are assigned to ''Histories'' and sixteen to the ''Annals''. Tacitus' friend Pliny referred to "your histories" when writing to him about his earlier work. Although Tacitus refers to part of his work as "my annals", the title of the work ''Annals'' used today was not assigned by Tacitus himself, but derives from its year-by-year structure. Of the sixteen books in ''Annals'', the reign of Tiberius takes up six books, of which only Book 5 is missing. These books are neatly divided into two sets of three, corresponding to the change in the nature of the political climate during the period. The next six books are devoted to the reigns of
Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula (), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the popular Roman general Germani ...
and
Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Drusus and Antonia Minor ...
. Books 7 through 10 are missing. Books 11 and 12 cover the period from the treachery of
Messalina Valeria Messalina (; ) was the third wife of Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of Emperor Nero, a second cousin of Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus. A powerful and influential woman with a reputation ...
to the end of Claudius' reign. The final four books cover the reign of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
and Book 16 cuts off in the middle of the year AD 66.''Tacitus and the Writing of History'' by Ronald H. Martin 1981 pages 104–105 This leaves the material that would have covered the final two years of Nero's reign lost.


Content and style

Tacitus documented a Roman imperial system of government. Tacitus chose to start his work with the death of
Augustus Caesar Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
in AD 14, and his succession by
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
.''The annals'' by Cornelius Tacitus, Anthony John Woodman 2004 pages x to xx As in the ''
Histories Histories or, in Latin, Historiae may refer to: * the plural of history * ''Histories'' (Herodotus), by Herodotus * ''The Histories'', by Timaeus * ''The Histories'' (Polybius), by Polybius * ''Histories'' by Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), ...
'', Tacitus maintains his thesis of the necessity of the
principate The Principate is the name sometimes given to the first period of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the so-called Dominate. ...
. He says again that Augustus gave and warranted peace to the state after years of civil war, but on the other hand he shows us the dark side of life under the Caesars. The history of the beginning of the principate is also the history of the end of the political freedom that the senatorial aristocracy, which Tacitus viewed as morally decadent, corrupt, and servile towards the emperor, had enjoyed during the republic. During Nero's reign there had been a widespread diffusion of literary works in favor of this suicidal ''exitus illustrium virorum'' ("end of the illustrious men"). Again, as in his '' Agricola'', Tacitus is opposed to those who chose useless martyrdom through vain suicides. In the ''Annals'', Tacitus further improved the style of portraiture that he had used so well in the ''Historiae''. Perhaps the best portrait is that of Tiberius, portrayed in an indirect way, painted progressively during the course of a narrative, with observations and commentary along the way filling in details. Tacitus portrays both Tiberius and Nero as tyrants who caused fear in their subjects. But while he views Tiberius as someone who had once been a great man, Tacitus considers Nero as simply despicable.


Provenance and authenticity

Since the 18th century, at least five attempts have been made to challenge the authenticity of the ''Annals'' as having been written by someone other than Tacitus,
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his '' nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—e ...
's criticism being perhaps the first. Voltaire was generally critical of Tacitus and said that Tacitus did not comply with the standards for providing a historical background to civilization. In 1878, John Wilson Ross and, in 1890, Polydore Hochart suggested that the whole of the ''Annals'' had been forged by the Italian scholar
Poggio Bracciolini Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanist. He was responsible for rediscovering and recovering many clas ...
(1380–1459). According to Robert Van Voorst this was an "extreme hypothesis" which never gained a following among modern scholars. Robert Van Voorst ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' 2000 page 42 The
provenance Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...
of the manuscripts containing the ''Annals'' goes back to the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
. While Bracciolini had discovered three minor works at Hersfeld Abbey in Germany in 1425, Zanobi da Strada (who died in 1361) had probably earlier discovered ''Annals'' 11–16 at Monte Cassino where he lived for some time.''Latin Literature: A History'' by Gian Biagio Conte, Don P. Fowler, Glen W. Most and Joseph Solodow (Nov 4, 1999) Johns Hopkins University Press page 543 The copies of ''Annals'' at Monte Cassino were probably moved to
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
by
Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was som ...
(1313–1375), a friend of da Strada, who is also credited with their discovery at Monte Cassino.''Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia'' by Christopher Kleinhenz (Nov 2003) page 1174''The Scriptorium and Library at Monte Cassino, 1058–1105'' by Francis Newton (29 Apr 1999) Cambridge University Press page 327 Regardless of whether the Monte Cassino manuscripts were moved to Florence by Boccaccio or da Strada, Boccaccio made use of the ''Annals'' when he wrote ''Commento di Dante'' c. 1374 (before the birth of Poggio Bracciolini), giving an account of Seneca's death directly based on the Tacitean account in ''Annals'' book 15.''Boccaccio's Expositions on Dante's Comedy'' by Giovanni Boccaccio, Michael Papio 2009 University of Toronto Press page 233, also se
PDF file
/ref> Francis Newton states that it is likely that ''Annals'' 11–16 were in
Monte Cassino Monte Cassino (today usually spelled Montecassino) is a rocky hill about southeast of Rome, in the Latin Valley, Italy, west of Cassino and at an elevation of . Site of the Roman town of Casinum, it is widely known for its abbey, the first ho ...
during the first half of the rule of Abbot Desiderius (1058–1087) who later became
Pope Victor III Pope Victor III ( 1026 – 16 September 1087), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 May 1086 to his death. He was the successor of Pope Gregory VII, yet his pontificate is far less notable than his time as ...
.''The Scriptorium and Library at Monte Cassino, 1058–1105'' by Francis Newton (29 Apr 1999) Cambridge University Press pages 104–105 ''Annals'' 1–6 were then independently discovered at
Corvey Abbey The Princely Abbey of Corvey (german: link=no, Fürststift Corvey or Fürstabtei Corvey) is a former Benedictine abbey and ecclesiastical principality now in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It was one of the half-dozen self-ruling '' princel ...
in Germany in 1508 by
Giovanni Angelo Arcimboldi Giovanni Angelo Arcimboldi (1485–1555) was a Roman Catholic prelate who served as Bishop of Novara (1526–1550) ''(in Latin)'' and Archbishop of Milan (1550–1555). ''(in Latin)'' Biography Giovanni Angelo Arcimboldi was born in Milan, I ...
, afterwards Archbishop of Milan, and were first published in Rome in 1515 by Beroaldus, by order of Pope Leo X, who afterwards deposited the manuscript in the Medicean Library in Florence.


In popular culture

In Donna Leon's third Commissario Brunetti novel '' Dressed for Death'' (1994), the protagonist reads Tacitus' ''Annals'' in his spare time in the evenings, and various references to that material are made throughout the novel. In Mikhail Bulgakov's '' The Master and Margarita'' Tacitus’ ''Annals'' is referenced, as the MASSOLIT editor Berlioz asserts that its mention of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ is a spurious interjection, added later, and not written by Tacitus. In
Jorge Luis Borges Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo (; ; 24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986) was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet and translator, as well as a key figure in Spanish-language and international literature. His best-known b ...
's short story '' The Garden of Forking Paths'', when Yu Tsun, the main character, takes the train to carry out his final mission in the fictitious town of Ashgrove, among the few persons he encounters on the train is a young man fervently reading Tacitus’ ''Annals''. Tacitus is also mentioned briefly in '' The Mysteries of Udolpho'' by Ann Radcliffe, volume VI, chapter VIII.


See also

* Tacitean studies * Tacitus on Jesus * Virius Nicomachus Flavianus, who wrote a lost historical work entitled ''Annals'', probably a continuation of Tacitus' work.


References


Further reading

* * Damon, Cynthia (2012) ''Tacitus, Annals'' (Penguin Classics)


External links

* * * *
Annals 15.20-23, 33-45
at
Dickinson College Commentaries Dickinson College Commentaries is a digital project of Dickinson College, which is located in Carlisle, near Harrisburg, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The project assembles digital commentaries on texts in Latin and ancient Greek and publish ...
- Latin text with notes and vocabulary * Owen, Matthew and Ingo Gildenhard
''Tacitus, Annals, 15.20-23, 33-45. Latin Text, Study Aids with Vocabulary, and Commentary''.
Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. 2013. http://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0035

{{Authority control 2nd-century history books Chronicles Latin histories Works by Tacitus History books about ancient Rome