Anglo-Norman language
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Anglo-Norman (; ), also known as Anglo-Norman French, was a
dialect A dialect is a Variety (linguistics), variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. This may include dominant and standard language, standardized varieties as well as Vernacular language, vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardize ...
of Old Norman that was used in
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
and, to a lesser extent, other places in Great Britain and Ireland during the Anglo-Norman period.


Origin

The term "Anglo-Norman" harks back to the time when the language was regarded as being primarily the regional dialect of the Norman settlers. Today the generic term "Anglo-French" is used instead to reflect not only the broader origin of the settlers who came with
William the Conqueror William the Conqueror (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), sometimes called William the Bastard, was the first Norman king of England (as William I), reigning from 1066 until his death. A descendant of Rollo, he was D ...
, but also the continued influence of Parisian French from the Plantagenet period onwards. According to some linguists, the name Insular French might be more suitable, because "Anglo-Norman" is constantly associated with the notion of a
mixed language A mixed language, also referred to as a hybrid language or fusion language, is a type of contact language that arises among a bilingual group combining aspects of two or more languages but not clearly deriving primarily from any single language. ...
based on English and Norman. According to some, such a mixed language never existed. Other sources, however, indicate that such a language did exist, and that it was the language descended from the
Norman French Norman or Norman French (, , Guernésiais: , Jèrriais: ) is a '' langue d'oïl'' spoken in the historical and cultural region of Normandy. The name "Norman French" is sometimes also used to describe the administrative languages of '' Angl ...
originally established in England after the Conquest. Although Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French were eventually eclipsed by modern English, they had been used widely enough to influence English vocabulary permanently. This means that many original Germanic words, cognates of which can still be found in Nordic, German, and Dutch, have been lost or, as is more often the case, exist alongside synonyms of Anglo-Norman French origin. Anglo-Norman had little lasting influence on English grammar, as opposed to vocabulary, although it is still evident in official and legal terms where the ordinary sequence of noun and adjective is reversed, as seen in phrases such as ''Blood Royal, attorney general, heir apparent, court martial, envoy extraordinary'' and ''body politic.'' The
royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom The royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, also referred to as the royal arms, are the arms of dominion of the British monarch, currently Charles III. They are used by the Government of the United Kingdom and by other The Crown, Crown instit ...
still features in French the mottos of both the
British Monarch The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the form of government used by the United Kingdom by which a hereditary monarch reigns as the head of state, with their powers regulated by the British con ...
, ("God and my right"), and the
Order of the Garter The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. The most senior order of knighthood in the Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom, British honours system, it is outranked in ...
, ''
Honi soit qui mal y pense (, ; ) is a maxim (philosophy), maxim in the Anglo-Norman language, a dialect of Old Norman French spoken by the medieval ruling class in England, meaning "shamed be whoever thinks ill of it", usually translated as "shame on anyone who think ...
'' ("Shamed be he who thinks evil of it"). ''Dieu et mon droit'' was first used by
Richard I Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard the Lionheart or Richard Cœur de Lion () because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior, was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ru ...
(who spoke Anglo-Norman, but cannot be proved to have been able to speak English) in 1198 and adopted as the royal motto of England in the time of Henry VI. The motto appears below the shield of the Royal Coat of Arms.


Use and development

Though in regular use at the royal court, Anglo-French was not the main administrative language of England: Latin was the major language of record in legal and other official documents for most of the medieval period. However, from the mid-13th century to the early 15th century, Anglo-French was much used in law reports, charters, ordinances, official correspondence, and trade at all levels; it was the language of the King, his court and the upper class. There is evidence, too, that foreign words (
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
,
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
, Italian,
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
, Spanish) often entered English via Anglo-Norman. The language of later documents adopted some of the changes ongoing in continental French and lost many of its original dialectal characteristics, so ''Anglo-French'' remained (in at least some respects and at least at some social levels) part of the dialect continuum of modern French, often with distinctive spellings. Over time, the use of Anglo-French expanded into the fields of law, administration, commerce, and science, in all of which a rich documentary legacy survives, indicative of the vitality and importance of the language. By the late 15th century, however, what remained of insular French had become heavily anglicised: see
Law French Law French () is an archaic language originally based on Anglo-Norman, but increasingly influenced by Parisian French and, later, English. It was used in the law courts of England from the 13th century. Its use continued for several centur ...
. It continued to be known as "Norman French" until the end of the 19th century even though, philologically, there was nothing Norman about it. Among important writers of the Anglo-Norman cultural commonwealth is Marie de France. The languages and literature of the
Channel Islands The Channel Islands are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They are divided into two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of Jersey, which is the largest of the islands; and the Bailiwick of Guernsey, ...
are sometimes referred to as Anglo-Norman, but that usage is derived from the French name for the islands: ''les îles anglo-normandes''. The variety of French spoken in the islands is related to the modern
Norman language Norman or Norman French (, , Guernésiais: , Jèrriais: ) is a ''Langues d'oïl, langue d'oïl'' spoken in the historical region, historical and Cultural area, cultural region of Normandy. The name "Norman French" is sometimes also used to des ...
, and distinct from the Anglo-Norman of medieval England.


Trilingualism in medieval and modern England


General history in medieval England

Many of the earliest documents in
Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th -4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...
are found in England. In medieval France, it was not usual to write in the vernacular: Because Medieval Latin, Latin was the language of the Roman Catholic Church#Medieval and Renaissance periods, Church, Medieval university, education, and historiography, it was also used for records. In medieval England, Latin also remained in use by the Church, the royal government, and much local administration in parallel with
Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English pe ...
, as it had been before 1066. The early adoption of Anglo-Norman as a written and literary language probably owes something to this history of bilingualism in writing. In the first centuries after the Norman Conquest of England, the French-speaking elite primarily relied on Latin for record-keeping rather than their own language, while English continued to have a written tradition and was used in religious services until 1154, when the Angevins came into power. Englishmen seeking words associated with government, culture, or entertainment would likely use French terms in their English speech to operate in upper-middle-class social settings would not only learn some French but also imitate the Frenchified English of bilingual speakers. Nevertheless, educated Englishmen in the 12th and 13th centuries could read and speak French to some extent. This explains why the first French loanwords entering English were introduced through written texts and passive knowledge of the language rather than active use. However, as French began to be used for record-keeping in England due to its growing prestige during the mid-13th century, approximately 90% of the total 10,000 French loanwords in English began to be documented in the language. Around the same time, as a shift took place in France towards using French as a language of record in the mid-13th century, Anglo-Norman also became a language of record in England, although Latin retained its pre-eminence for matters of permanent record (as in written
chronicle A chronicle (, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events ...
s). From around this point onwards, considerable variation begins to be apparent in Anglo-Norman, which ranges from the very local (and most anglicised) to a level of language which approximates to and is sometimes indistinguishable from varieties of continental French. Typically, therefore, local records are rather different from continental French, with diplomatic and international trade documents closest to the emerging continental norm. English remained the vernacular of the common people throughout this period. The resulting virtual trilingualism in spoken and written language was one of medieval Latin, Anglo-Norman and Middle English.


Language of the king and his court

From the time of the
Norman Conquest The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Normans, Norman, French people, French, Flemish people, Flemish, and Bretons, Breton troops, all led by the Du ...
(1066) until the end of the 14th century, French was the language of the king and his court. During this period, marriages with French princesses reinforced the royal family's ties to French culture. Nevertheless, during the 13th century, intermarriages with
English nobility The British nobility is made up of the peerage and the gentry of the British Isles. Though the UK is today a constitutional monarchy with strong democratic elements, historically the British Isles were more predisposed towards aristocratic gove ...
became more frequent. French became progressively a second language among the upper classes. Moreover, with the
Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years' War (; 1337–1453) was a conflict between the kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of France, France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy ...
and the growing spirit of English and French nationalism, the status of French diminished. French (specifically
Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th -4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...
) was the mother tongue of every English king from
William the Conqueror William the Conqueror (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), sometimes called William the Bastard, was the first Norman king of England (as William I), reigning from 1066 until his death. A descendant of Rollo, he was D ...
(1066–1087) until Henry IV (1399–1413). Henry IV was the first to take the oath in ( Middle) English, and his son, Henry V of England">Henry V (1413–1422), was the first to write in English. By the end of the 15th century, French became the second language of a cultivated elite.Lusignan, Serge. ''La langue des rois au Moyen Âge : Le français en France et en Angleterre''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004.


Language of the royal charters and legislation

Until the end of the 13th century,
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
was the main language of all official written documents. Nevertheless, some important documents had their official Norman translation, such as Magna Carta of 1215. The first official document written in Anglo-Norman was a statute promulgated by the king in 1275. With effect from the 13th century, Anglo-Norman therefore became used in official documents, such as those that were marked by the private seal of the king whereas the documents sealed by the
Lord Chancellor The Lord Chancellor, formally titled Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom. The lord chancellor is the minister of justice for England and Wales and the highest-ra ...
were written in Latin until the end of the Middle Ages. English became the language of
Parliament In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
and of legislation in the 15th century, half a century after it had become the language of the king and most of the English nobility.


Language of administration and justice

During the 11th century, development of the administrative and judicial institutions took place. Because the king and the lawyers at the time normally used French, it also became the language of these institutions. During the late 14th century, English became the main spoken language, but Latin and French continued to be exclusively used in official legal documents until the beginning of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the French language used in England changed from the end of the 15th century into
Law French Law French () is an archaic language originally based on Anglo-Norman, but increasingly influenced by Parisian French and, later, English. It was used in the law courts of England from the 13th century. Its use continued for several centur ...
, that was used since the 13th century. This variety of French was a technical language, with a specific vocabulary, where English words were used to describe everyday experience, and French grammatical rules and morphology gradually declined, with confusion of genders and the adding of ''-s'' to form all plurals. Law French was banished from the courts of the
common law Common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law primarily developed through judicial decisions rather than statutes. Although common law may incorporate certain statutes, it is largely based on prece ...
in 1731, almost three centuries after the king ceased speaking primarily French. French was used on moots in the
Inner Temple The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, commonly known as the Inner Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court and is a professional association for barristers and judges. To be called to the Bar and practice as a barrister in England and Wa ...
until 1779. Anglo-Norman has survived in the political system in the use of certain Anglo-French set phrases in the
Parliament of the United Kingdom The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, and may also legislate for the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. It meets at the Palace ...
, where they are written by hand on bills by the Clerk of the Parliaments or Clerk of the House of Commons to endorse them during their progress to becoming law, or spoken aloud by the Clerk of the Parliaments during a gathering of the
Lords Commissioners The Lords Commissioners are Privy Council of the United Kingdom, privy counsellors appointed by the monarch of the United Kingdom to exercise, on his or her behalf, certain functions relating to Parliament of the United Kingdom, Parliament whic ...
, to indicate the granting of
Royal Assent Royal assent is the method by which a monarch formally approves an act of the legislature, either directly or through an official acting on the monarch's behalf. In some jurisdictions, royal assent is equivalent to promulgation, while in othe ...
to legislation. The exact spelling of these phrases has varied over the years; for example, ''s'avisera'' has been spelled as ''s'uvisera'' and ''s'advisera'', and ''Reyne'' as ''Raine''.


Language of the people

Though the great mass of ordinary people spoke forms of English, French spread as a second language due to its prestige, encouraged by its long-standing use in the school system as a medium of instruction through which Latin was taught. In the courts, the members of the
jury A jury is a sworn body of people (jurors) convened to hear evidence, make Question of fact, findings of fact, and render an impartiality, impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a sentence (law), penalty or Judgmen ...
, who represented the population, had to know French in order to understand the plea of the lawyer. French was used by the merchant middle class as a language of business communication, especially when it traded with the continent, and several churches used French to communicate with lay people. A small but important number of documents survive associated with the Jews of medieval England, some featuring Anglo-French written in
Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
script, typically in the form of glosses to the Hebrew scriptures.Fuderman


Characteristics

As a '' langue d'oïl'', Anglo-Norman developed collaterally to the central
Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th -4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...
dialects which would eventually become Parisian French in terms of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Before the signature of the ''Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts'' in 1539, French was not standardised as an administrative language throughout the kingdom of France.
Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English pe ...
was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman and, later, Anglo-French. W. Rothwell has called Anglo-French 'the missing link' because many etymological
dictionaries A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged Alphabetical order, alphabetically (or by Semitic root, consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical-and-stroke sorting, radical an ...
seem to ignore the contribution of that language in English and because Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French can explain the transmission of words from French into English and fill the void left by the absence of documentary records of English (in the main) between 1066 and . Anglo-Norman continued to evolve significantly during the Middle Ages by reflecting some of the changes undergone by the northern dialects of mainland French. For example, early Anglo-Norman legal documents used the phrase "del roy" (of the king), whereas by about 1330 it had become "du roi" as in modern French. Anglo-Norman
morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines *Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts *Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
and
phonology Phonology (formerly also phonemics or phonematics: "phonemics ''n.'' 'obsolescent''1. Any procedure for identifying the phonemes of a language from a corpus of data. 2. (formerly also phonematics) A former synonym for phonology, often pre ...
can be deduced from its heritage in English. Mostly, it is done in comparison with continental Central French. English has many doublets as a result of this contrast: * ''warranty – guarantee'' * ''warden – guardian'' * ''catch – chase'' (see below) Compare also: * ''wage'' (Anglo-Norman) – (French) * ''wait'' – ''guetter'' (French, Old French ''guaitier'') * ''war'' (from Anglo-Norman ''werre'') – (French) * ''wicket'' (Anglo-Norman) – (French, from Norman) The palatalization of
velar consonant Velar consonants are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (also known as the "velum"). Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relativel ...
s before the front vowel produced different results in Norman to the central ''langue d'oïl'' dialects that developed into French. English therefore, for example, has ''fashion'' from Norman ''féchoun'' as opposed to Modern French ''façon'' (both developing from Latin ''factio, factiōnem''). In contrast, the palatalization of velar consonants before that affected the development of French did not occur in Norman dialects north of the Joret line. English has therefore inherited words that retain a velar
plosive In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or simply a stop, is a pulmonic consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be made with the tongue tip or blade (, ), tongue body (, ), lip ...
where French has a
fricative A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in ...
: Some loans were palatalised later in English, as in the case of ''challenge'' (< Old Norman , Middle English , later ; Old French ). There were also vowel differences: Compare Anglo-Norman ''profound'' with Parisian French ''profond'', ''soun'' sound with ''son'', ''round'' with ''rond''. The former words were originally pronounced something like 'profoond', 'soon', 'roond' respectively (compare the similarly denasalised vowels of modern Norman), but later developed their modern pronunciation in English. The word ''veil'' retains the (as does modern Norman in ''vaile'' and ''laîsi'') that in French has been replaced by ''voile'', ''loisir''. Since many words established in Anglo-Norman from French via the intermediary of Norman were not subject to the processes of sound change that continued in parts of the continent, English sometimes preserves earlier pronunciations. For example, ''ch'' used to be in medieval French, where Modern French has , but English has preserved the older sound (in words like ''chamber, chain, chase'' and ''exchequer''). Similarly, ''j'' had an older sound, which it still has in English and some dialects of modern Norman, but it has developed into in Modern French. The word ''mushroom'' preserves a hush
sibilant Sibilants (from 'hissing') are fricative and affricate consonants of higher amplitude and pitch, made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth. Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English w ...
not recorded in French , as does ''cushion'' for ''coussin''. Conversely, the pronunciation of the word ''sugar'' resembles Norman ''chucre'' even if the spelling is closer to French ''sucre''. It is possible that the original sound was an apical sibilant, like the
Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...
''s'', which is halfway between a hissing sibilant and a hushing sibilant. The doublets '' catch'' and '' chase'' are both derived from Low Latin ''*captiare''. ''Catch'' demonstrates a Norman development while ''chase'' is the French equivalent imported with a different meaning. Distinctions in meaning between Anglo-Norman and French have led to many '' faux amis'' (words having similar form but different meanings) in Modern English and Modern French. Although it is a Romance language, Norman contains a significant amount of lexical material from
Old Norse Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants ...
. Because of this, some of the words introduced to England as part of Anglo-Norman were of Germanic origin. Indeed, sometimes one can identify cognates such as ''flock'' (Germanic in English existing prior to the Conquest) and ''floquet'' (Germanic in Norman). The case of the word ''mug'' demonstrates that in instances, Anglo-Norman may have reinforced certain Scandinavian elements already present in English. ''Mug'' had been introduced into northern English dialects by
Viking Vikings were seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded, and settled throughout parts of Europe.Roesdahl, pp. 9� ...
settlement. The same word had been established in Normandy by the Normans (Norsemen) and was then brought over after the Conquest and established firstly in southern English dialects. It is, therefore, argued that the word ''mug'' in English shows some of the complicated Germanic heritage of Anglo-Norman. Many expressions used in English today have their origin in Anglo-Norman (such as the expression ''before-hand'', which derives from Anglo-Norman ''avaunt-main''), as do many modern words with interesting etymologies. ''
Mortgage A mortgage loan or simply mortgage (), in civil law (legal system), civil law jurisdictions known also as a hypothec loan, is a loan used either by purchasers of real property to raise funds to buy real estate, or by existing property owners t ...
'', for example, literally meant ''death-wage'' in Anglo-Norman. ''
Curfew A curfew is an order that imposes certain regulations during specified hours. Typically, curfews order all people affected by them to remain indoors during the evening and nighttime hours. Such an order is most often issued by public authorit ...
'' (fr. '' couvre-feu'') meant ''cover-fire'', referring to the time in the evening when all fires had to be covered to prevent the spread of fire within communities with timber buildings. The word ''glamour'' is derived from Anglo-Norman ''grammeire'', the same word which gives us modern ''grammar''; ''glamour'' meant first "book learning" and then the most glamorous form of book learning, "magic" or "magic spell" in medieval times. The influence of Anglo-Norman was very asymmetrical: very little influence from English was carried over into the continental possessions of the Anglo-Norman kings. Some administrative terms survived in some parts of mainland Normandy: (from ''furrow'', compare ''
furlong A furlong is a measure of distance in imperial units and United States customary units equal to one-eighth of a mile, equivalent to any of 660 foot (unit), feet, 220 yards, 40 rod (unit), rods, 10 chain (unit), chains, or a ...
'') in the
Cotentin Peninsula The Cotentin Peninsula (, ; ), also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France. It extends north-westward into the English Channel, towards Great Britain. To its west lie the Gu ...
and
Bessin Bessin () is an area in Normandy Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy. Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Norman ...
, and a general use of the word ''
acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
'' (instead of French ''arpent'') for land measurement in Normandy until
metrication Metrication or metrification is the act or process of converting to the metric system of measurement. All over the world, countries have transitioned from local and traditional Unit of measurement, units of measurement to the metric system. This ...
in the 19th century, but these words are probably linguistic traces of Saxon or Anglo-Scandinavian settlements between the 4th and the 10th centuries in Normandy. Otherwise the direct influence of English in mainland Norman (such as ''smogler'' "to smuggle") is from direct contact with English in later centuries, rather than Anglo-Norman.


Literature

When the
Normans The Normans (Norman language, Norman: ''Normaunds''; ; ) were a population arising in the medieval Duchy of Normandy from the intermingling between Norsemen, Norse Viking settlers and locals of West Francia. The Norse settlements in West Franc ...
conquered England, Anglo-Saxon literature had reached a very high level of development. The important
Benedictine The Benedictines, officially the Order of Saint Benedict (, abbreviated as O.S.B. or OSB), are a mainly contemplative monastic order of the Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. Initiated in 529, th ...
monasteries both wrote chronicles and guarded other works in
Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...
. However, with the arrival of the Normans, Anglo-Saxon literature came to an end and literature written in Britain was in Latin or Anglo-Norman. The
Plantagenet The House of Plantagenet ( /plænˈtædʒənət/ ''plan-TAJ-ə-nət'') was a royal house which originated from the French county of Anjou. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: the Angev ...
kings encouraged this
Anglo-Norman literature Anglo-Norman literature is literature composed in the Anglo-Norman language and developed during the period of 1066–1204, as the Duchy of Normandy and the Kingdom of England were united in the Anglo-Norman realm. Introduction The Norman langu ...
. Nevertheless, from the beginning of the 14th century, some authors chose to write in English, such as
Geoffrey Chaucer Geoffrey Chaucer ( ; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for ''The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He w ...
. The authors of that period were influenced by the works of contemporary French writers whose language was prestigious. Chaucer - himself of Norman origin - is considered to be the father of the English language and the creator of English as a literary language.


Influence on English

The major Norman-French influence on English can still be seen in today's vocabulary. An enormous number of Norman-French and other medieval French
loanwords A loanword (also a loan word, loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language (the recipient or target language), through the process of borrowing. Borrowing is a metaphorical term t ...
came into the language, and about three-quarters of them are still used today. Very often, the Norman or French word supplanted the original English term, or both words would co-exist but with slightly different nuances. In other cases, the Norman or French word was adopted to signify a new reality, such as ''judge'', ''castle'', ''warranty''. In general, the Norman and French borrowings concerned the fields of culture, aristocratic life, politics and religion, and war whereas the English words were used to describe everyday experience. When the Normans arrived in England, their copyists wrote English as they heard it, without realising the peculiarities of the relationship between Anglo-Saxon pronunciation and spelling and so the spelling changed. There appeared different regional Modern-English written dialects, the one that the king chose in the 15th century becoming the standard variety. In some remote areas, agricultural terms used by the rural workers may have been derived from Norman French. An example is the Cumbrian term ''sturdy'' for diseased sheep that walk in circles, derived from ''étourdi'' meaning dizzy.


Influence in Ireland

The
Norman invasion of Ireland The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land in Ireland over which the monarchs of England then claimed sovereignty. The Anglo-Normans ...
, beginning on 1st May 1169 at Bannow Bay, led to Anglo-Norman control of much of the island. Norman-speakers arrived to administrate the
Angevin Empire The Angevin Empire (; ) was the collection of territories held by the House of Plantagenet during the 12th and 13th centuries, when they ruled over an area covering roughly all of present-day England, half of France, and parts of Ireland and Wal ...
's new territory. Several Norman words were borrowed into Irish, including household terms: (from Norman , "boy"); (, "cloak"); (, "hat"); (, "garden"); and terms relating to justice (Irish , (corporation), (court)). Place-names in Norman are few, but there is Buttevant (from the motto of the Barry family: , "Push to the fore"), the village of Brittas (from the Norman , "boarding, planking") and the element ''Pallas'' (Irish , from Norman , "boundary fence": compare
palisade A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall or a paling, is typically a row of closely placed, high vertical standing tree trunks or wooden or iron stakes used as a fence for enclosure or as a defensive wall. Palisades can form a stockade. Etymo ...
and The Pale). Others exist with English and Irish roots, such as Castletownroche, which combines the English ''Castletown'' and the Norman , meaning rock. Only a handful of Hiberno-Norman-French texts survive, most notably ''
The Song of Dermot and the Earl ''The Song of Dermot and the Earl'' () is an anonymous Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Norman verse chronicle written in the early 13th century in England. It tells of the arrival of Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, Richard de Clare (Strongbow) in I ...
'', a (early 13th century), and the
Statutes of Kilkenny The Statutes of Kilkenny were a series of thirty-five acts enacted by the Parliament of Ireland at Kilkenny in 1366, aiming to curb the decline of the Hiberno-Norman Lordship of Ireland. Background to the statutes By the middle decades of the ...
from 1366.


See also

*
Anglo-Norman literature Anglo-Norman literature is literature composed in the Anglo-Norman language and developed during the period of 1066–1204, as the Duchy of Normandy and the Kingdom of England were united in the Anglo-Norman realm. Introduction The Norman langu ...
* Anglo-Norman Text Society *
Influence of French on English Influence may refer to: *Social influence, in social psychology, influence in interpersonal relationships **Minority influence, when the minority affect the behavior or beliefs of the majority Science and technology *Sphere of influence (astrody ...
*
Law French Law French () is an archaic language originally based on Anglo-Norman, but increasingly influenced by Parisian French and, later, English. It was used in the law courts of England from the 13th century. Its use continued for several centur ...
* Middle English creole hypothesis *
Guernésiais Guernésiais (), also known as Guerneseyese, ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known on the island simply as "patois". As one of the langues d ...
*
Jèrriais ( ; also known as the Jersey language, Jersey French and Jersey Norman French in English) is a Romance languages, Romance language and the traditional language of the Jersey people. It is a form of the Norman language spoken in Jersey, an isla ...
* Auregnais * Sercquiais *


Notes


References

*British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A XIII/

"Les roys de Engeltere" (Five rectangles of red linen, formerly used as curtains for the miniatures.ff. 3–6: Eight miniatures of the kings of England from Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) to Edward I (r. 1272–1307); each one except the last is accompanied by a short account of their reign in Anglo-Norman prose." "Roy Phylippe de Fraunce" "en englerere: le Roy Jon regna."), (1272–1307). * De Wilde, Geert et al. (eds.)
"Anglo-Norman Dictionary"
(= AND), on l

. * Kelham, ''Dictionary of the Norman or Old French Language'' (1779) (very outdated) * F. W. Maitland, Pollock and Maitland, ''History of English Law'', 2nd edition: Cambridge 1898, pp. 80–87.


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(eds), The Medieval Translator 6: Proceedings of the International Conference of Göttingen (22–25 July 1996), Louvain-la-Neuve, 20–39. *Trotter, David (2000a), Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain: Proceedings of the 1997 Aberystwyth Colloquium, Cambridge. *Trotter, David (2000b), 'L'avenir de la lexicographie anglo-normande: vers une refonte de l'Anglo-Norman Dictionary?', Revue de linguistique romane, 64 (2000), 391–407. *Trotter, David (2000c), 'Anglo-Norman', in Glanville Price (ed.), Languages of the British Isles (Oxford: Blackwell), 197–206. *Trotter, David (2003a), L'Anglo-normand: variété insulaire, ou variété isolée?, Médiévales, 45, 43–54. *Trotter, David (2003b), 'The Anglo-French lexis of the Ancrene Wisse: a re-evaluation', in A Companion to 'Ancrene Wisse', ed. Yoko Wada (Cambridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2003), 83–101 *Trotter, David (2003c), 'Langues en contact en Gascogne médiévale', in Actas del XXIII Congreso Internacional de Lingüística y Filología Románica, Salamanca, 2001, III. Tübingen. *Trotter, David (2003d), 'Not as eccentric as it looks: Anglo-Norman and French French', Forum for Modern Language Studies, 39, 427–438. *Trotter, David (2003e), 'Oceano vox: you never know where a ship comes from. On multilingualism and language-mixing in medieval Britain', in Kurt Braunmüller & Gisella Ferraresi (eds.), Aspects of Multilingualism in European Language History (Amsterdam: John Benjamins), 18–33. *Trotter, David (2006a) 'Language Contact, Multilingualism, and the Evidence Problem', in: Schaefer, U. (ed.), The Beginnings of Standardization: Language and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2006), 73–90. *Trotter, David (2006b) 'Si le français n'y peut aller: Villers Cotterêts and mixed language documents from the Pyrenees', in: COWLING, D.J. (ed.), Conceptions of Europe in Renaissance France: a Festschrift for Keith Cameron (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006), 77–97. *Trotter, David (2008), L'Anglo-normand en France: les traces documentaires, Académie des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres: Comptes rendus des séances de l'année 2008, avril-juin, II, 893–904. *Trotter, David (2009), 'English in Contact: Middle English creolization', in A. Bergs/L. Brinton (eds.), Historical Linguistics of English (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012), 2, 1781–1793. *Trotter, David (2010): Bridging the Gap: The (Socio-)linguistic Evidence of Some Medieval English Bridge Accounts. In: Ingham (2010), 52–62. *Trotter, David (2011a), 'Il sount aliens: marchands étrangers et contact linguistique en Angleterre au Moyen Âge', in W. Schweickard/A. Overbeck/H. Völker (eds.), Lexikon, Varietät, Philologie: Romanistische Studien Günter Holtus zum 65. Geburtstag (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 307–315. *Trotter, David (2011b), 'L'anglo-normand et le français, et les emprunts en anglais', Actes du colloque international 'Les emprunts lexicaux au français dans les langues européennes', Craiova, 10–12 novembre 2011 (Craiova: Editura Universitaria, 2011), 299–309. *Trotter, David (2011c), 'Death, taxes and property: some code-switching evidence from Dover, Southampton, and York', in H. Schendl/L. Wright (eds.), Code-Switching in Early English (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011), 155–189. *Trotter, David (2011d), 'Intra-textual multilingualism and diaphasic/diastratic variation in Anglo-Norman', in Elizabeth Tyler (ed.), Conceptualizing Multilingualism in England, 800–1250, University of York, July 2006 (Amsterdam: Brepols, 2011), 357–368. *Trotter, David (2011e), 'Italian merchants in London and Paris: evidence of language contact in the Gallerani accounts, 1305–08', in D. Lagorgette/T. Pooley (eds.), On linguistic change in French: socio-historical approaches. Le changement linguistique en français: aspects socio-historiques Studies in Honour of R. Anthony Lodge. Etudes en hommage au Professeur R. Anthony Lodge (Chambéry: Presses Universitaires de Savoie, 2011), 209–226. *Trotter, David (2011f), 'Bytes, words, texts: the Anglo-Norman Dictionary and its text-base', in Christine McWebb/Helen Swift (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the "Third International Margot Conference, The Digital Middle Ages: Teaching and Research, special issue of Digital Medievalist, summer 2011, at https://web.archive.org/web/20140311153723/http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/7/trotter/. *Trotter, David (2012a): Saunz desbriser de hay ou de clos: clos(e) in Anglo-French and in English. In: Claudia Lange/Beatrix Weber/Göran Wolf (eds.), Communicative Spaces: Variation, Contact, and Change: Papers in Honour of Ursula Schaefer, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 197–214. *Trotter, David (2012b): L'anglo-normand dans le Middle English Dictionary. In: Stephen Dörr/Thomas Städtler (eds.), Ki bien voldreit raisun entendre: Mélanges en l'honneur du 70e anniversaire de Frankwalt Möhren, Strasbourg: Éditions de Linguistique et de Philologie, 323–337. *Trotter, David (2013a): Une rencontre germano-romane dans la Romania Britannica. In: Emili Casanova Herrero/Cesáro Calvo Rigual (edd.), Actas del XXVI Congreso Internacional de Lingüística y de Filología Románicas, Berlin: De Gruyter, I, 441–456. *Trotter, David (2013b): L'anglo-normand à la campagne. In: Comptes-rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions 2012, II (avril-juin), 1113–1131. *Trotter, David (à paraître a) 'Trové l'avum mis en tiste: comment réduire notre ignorance du lexique de l'anglo-normand', in Oreste Floquet/Gabriele Giannini (eds.), Anglo-Français: linguistique et philologie/Anglo-francese: filologia e linguistica (Paris: Garnier). *Trotter, David (à paraître b): Tout feu tout flamme: le FEW et l'anglais few. Dans un volume de mélanges. *Trotter, David (à paraître c): Noms de lieux, lieux des noms: l'influence Anglo-normande dans la toponymie anglaise. Dans un volume de mélanges. *Trotter, David (à paraître d), Trop fidèle pour être belle: l'édition historique en Anglo-normand, dans un volume de mélanges. * *Ureland, P. Sture (ed.) (1991), Language Contact in the British Isles, Tübingen. *Van Acker, Marieke (2010), La transition Latin / langues romanes et la notion de «diglossie», ZrP 126, 1–38. *Videsott, Paul (2013), Les débuts du français à la Chancellerie royale: analyse scriptologique des chartes de Philippe III (1270–1285), RLiR 77, 3–50. *Vising, Johan (1923), Anglo Norman Language and Literature, London. *Völker, Harald (2000), Chartes luxembourgeoises du XIIIe siècle: Scripta régionale, locale ou «individuelle»?, in: Actes du XXIIe Congrès International de Linguistique et de Philo¬logie Romanes, Bruxelles, 23–29 juillet 1998, Tübingen, Niemeyer, 2000, 5, 159–166. *Weiner, Edmund S.C. (2000), 'Medieval multilingualism and the revision of the OED'. In TROTTER (2000a), 169–174. *Woledge, Brian (1970), Un scribe champenois devant un texte normand: Guiot copiste de Wace, in: Mélanges de langue et de littérature du Moyen Âge et de la Renaissance offerts à Jean Frappier, Genève, Droz, 2, 1139–1154. *Wright, Laura (1996), Sources of London English: Medieval Thames Vocabulary. Oxford. *Wüest, Jakob (1979), La dialectalisation de la Gallo-Romania. Études phonologiques, Berne, Francke. *Wüest, Jakob (2001), Sind Schreibdialekte phonologisch interpretierbar? in: Holtus/Rapp/Völker (2001), 37–51. *Wüest, Jakob (2003), Le rapport entre la langue parlée et la langue écrite: les scriptae dans le domaine d'oïl et le domaine d'oc, in: Goyens/Verbeke (2003), 51–70.**


External links


The Revised Anglo-Norman Dictionary (A-S), with the entries from the first edition, for T-Z
is freely available online. The site, formerly known as ''The Anglo-Norman hub'', also provides a searchable textbase of more than 70 Anglo-Norman texts, selected publications by the editorial team, a general introduction to Anglo-Norman and a bibliography off all Anglo-Norman primary sources.
The Anglo-Norman Text Society publishes a wide range of works written in Anglo-Norman
* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Anglo-Norman Language Norman language
Language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...
Medieval languages Extinct Romance languages Languages of England Languages of Wales Medieval history of Wales Languages attested from the 11th century 11th-century establishments in Europe Languages extinct in the 14th century 14th-century disestablishments in Europe