Androdioecy is a
reproductive system
The reproductive system of an organism, also known as the genital system, is the biological system made up of all the anatomical organs involved in sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are als ...
characterized by the coexistence of
males
Male (symbol: ♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete (sex cell) known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilization.
A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to ...
and
hermaphrodites
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have sep ...
. Androdioecy is rare in comparison with the other major reproductive systems:
dioecy
Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproductio ...
,
gynodioecy
Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism (exhibiting both fem ...
and
hermaphroditism
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separ ...
. In animals, androdioecy has been considered a stepping stone in the transition from dioecy to hermaphroditism, and vice versa.
Androdioecy is sometimes referred to as a
mixed breeding system with
trioecy
Trioecy, or subdioecy, is a rare sexual system characterized by the coexistence of males, females, and hermaphrodites. It has been found in both plants and animals. Trioecy is sometimes referred to as a mixed mating system alongside androdioecy an ...
and
gynodioecy
Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism (exhibiting both fem ...
.
It is a dimorphic sexual system in plants alongside
gynodioecy
Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism (exhibiting both fem ...
and
dioecy
Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproductio ...
.
Evolution of androdioecy
The fitness requirements for androdioecy to arise and sustain itself are theoretically so improbable that it was long considered that such systems do not exist. Particularly, males and hermaphrodites have to have the same
fitness, in other words the same number of offspring, in order to be maintained. However, males only have offspring by fertilizing eggs or ovules of hermaphrodites, while hermaphrodites have offspring both through fertilizing eggs or ovules of other hermaphrodites and their own ovules. This means that all else being equal, males have to fertilize twice as many eggs or ovules as hermaphrodites to make up for the lack of female reproduction.
Androdioecy can evolve either from hermaphroditic ancestors through the invasion of males or from dioecious ancestors through the invasion of hermaphrodites. The ancestral state is important because conditions under which androdioecy can evolve differ significantly.
Androdioecy with dioecious ancestry
In roundworms, clam shrimp, tadpole shrimp and cancrid shrimps, androdioecy has evolved from dioecy. In these systems, hermaphrodites can only fertilize their own eggs (self-fertilize) and do not mate with other hermaphrodites. Males are the only means of
outcrossing
Out-crossing or out-breeding is the technique of crossing between different breeds. This is the practice of introducing distantly related genetic material into a breeding line, thereby increasing genetic diversity.
Outcrossing can be a useful ...
. Hermaphrodites may be beneficial in colonizing new habitats, because a single hermaphrodite can generate many other individuals.
In the well-studied
roundworm
The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a bro ...
''
Caenorhabditis elegans
''Caenorhabditis elegans'' () is a free-living transparent nematode about 1 mm in length that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. The name is a blend of the Greek ''caeno-'' (recent), ''rhabditis'' (ro ...
'', males are very rare and only occur in populations that are in bad condition or stressed.
In ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' androdioecy is thought to have evolved from dioecy, through a
trioecous intermediate.
Androdioecy with hermaphroditic ancestry
In barnacles androdioecy evolved from hermaphroditism.
Many plants self-fertilize, and males may be sustained in a population when
inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness which has the potential to result from inbreeding (the breeding of related individuals). Biological fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and perpetuate its genetic material. In ...
is severe because males guarantee outcrossing.
Types of Androdioecy
The most common form of androdioecy in animals involves hermaphrodites that can reproduce by
autogamy
Autogamy, or self-fertilization, refers to the fusion of two gametes that come from one individual. Autogamy is predominantly observed in the form of self-pollination, a reproductive mechanism employed by many flowering plants. However, species o ...
or
allogamy Allogamy or cross-fertilization is the fertilization of an ovum from one individual with the spermatozoa of another. By contrast, autogamy is the term used for self-fertilization. In humans, the fertilization event is an instance of allogamy. Self- ...
through ovum with males. However, this type doesn’t involve outcrossing with sperm. This type of androdioecy generally occurs in predominantly gonochoric taxonomy groups.
One type of androdioecy contains outcrossing hermaphrodites which is present in some
angiosperms
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
.
Another type of androdioecy has males and simultaneous hermaphrodites in a population due to developmental or conditional
sex allocation
Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing animal or plant produces male or female gametes. Male plants and animals produce smaller mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm, pollen), while females produce larger ones ( ova, of ...
. Like in some fish species small individuals are hermaphrodites and under circumstances of high density, large individuals become male.
Androdioecious species
Despite their unlikely evolution, 115 androdioecious animal and about 50 androdioecious plant species are known.
These species include
Anthozoa
Anthozoa is a subphylum of marine invertebrates which includes the sea anemones, Scleractinia, stony corals and Alcyonacea, soft corals. Adult anthozoans are almost all attached to the seabed, while their larvae can disperse as part of the plank ...
(Corals)
*''
Goniastra australensis''
*''
Stylophora pistillata''
Nematoda
The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broa ...
(Roundworms)
Rhabditidae
The Rhabditidae are a family of nematodes which includes the model organism '' Caenorhabditis elegans''.
Genera
''Bursilla''
*''Bursilla monhysteria'' (Butschli, 1873)
''Caenorhabditis''
*''Caenorhabditis brenneri'' Sudhaus & Kiontke, 2007
...
(Order
Rhabditida
Rhabditida is an order of free-living, zooparasitic, and phytoparasitic microbivorous nematodes living in soil.
The Cephalobidae, Panagrolaimidae, Steinernematidae, and Strongyloididae seem to be closer to the Tylenchia, regardless of whet ...
)
*''
Caenorhabditis briggsae
''Caenorhabditis briggsae'' is a small nematode, closely related to ''Caenorhabditis elegans''. The differences between the two species are subtle. The male tail in ''C. briggsae'' has a slightly different morphology from ''C. elegans''. Other di ...
''
*''
Caenorhabditis elegans
''Caenorhabditis elegans'' () is a free-living transparent nematode about 1 mm in length that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. The name is a blend of the Greek ''caeno-'' (recent), ''rhabditis'' (ro ...
''
*''
Caenorhabditis sp. 11''
*''
Oscheius myriophila
''Oscheius'' is a genus of nematode.
'' O. tipulae'' is a satellite developmental genetic model organism used to study vulva formation.
In phylogenetic studies, based on the analysis of sequences of three nuclear genes, ''Oscheius'' groups wi ...
''
*''
Oscheius dolchura
''Oscheius'' is a genus of nematode.
'' O. tipulae'' is a satellite developmental genetic model organism used to study vulva formation.
In phylogenetic studies, based on the analysis of sequences of three nuclear genes, ''Oscheius'' groups wi ...
''
*''
Oscheius tipulae
''Oscheius tipulae'' is a species of nematodes, described in association of the leatherjacket, the larva of '' Tipula paludosa''.
''O. tipulae'' is a satellite developmental genetic model organism used to study vulva formation.Polymorphism and e ...
''
*''
Oscheius guentheri
''Oscheius'' is a genus of nematode.
'' O. tipulae'' is a satellite developmental genetic model organism used to study vulva formation.
In phylogenetic studies, based on the analysis of sequences of three nuclear genes, ''Oscheius'' groups wi ...
''
*''
Rhabditis rainai
''Rhabditis'' is a genus of nematodes in the family Rhabditidae.
; Names brought to synonymy:
''Rhabditis (Caenorhabditis)'' Osche, 1952 is a synonym for ''Caenorhabditis
''Caenorhabditis'' is a genus of nematodes which live in bacteria-rich ...
''
*''
Rhabditis sp. (AF5)''
*''
Rhabdias nigrovenosum''
*''
Rhabdias rubrovenosa''
*''
Rhabdias ranae
''Rhabdias ranae'' is a species of nematode. The species has been described as androdioecious
Androdioecy is a reproductive system characterized by the coexistence of males and hermaphrodites. Androdioecy is rare in comparison with the other majo ...
''
*''
Entomelas entomelas''
Diplogastridae
Diplogastridae, formerly Diplogasteridae, are a family of nematodes (roundworms) known from a wide range of habitats, often in commensal or parasitic associations with insects.
Description
Diplogastrid nematodes are characterized by a distinc ...
(Order Rhabditida)
*''
Allodiplogaster sudhausi''
*''
Diplogasteroides magnus''
*''
Levipalatum texanum''
*''
Pristionchus boliviae''
*''
Pristionchus fissidentatus''
*''
Pristionchus maupasi''
*''
Pristionchus mayeri''
*''
Pristionchus pacificus
''Pristionchus pacificus'' is a species of free-living nematodes (roundworms) in the family Diplogastridae. The species has been established as a satellite model organism to '' Caenorhabditis elegans'', with which it shared a common ancestor ...
''
*''
Pristionchus triformis''
*''
Sudhausia aristotokia''
*''
Sudhausia crassa''
Steinernematidae
The
Steinernematidae are a family of nematodes in the order Rhabditida.
Nematodes of the genus ''Steinernema'' are obligate insect parasites that inhabit soil. ''Xenorhabdus'' bacteria occupy nematode insecticide and synergistically kill, dig ...
(Order Rhabditida)
*''
Steinernema hermaphroditum''
Allanotnematidae (Order Rhabditida)
*''
Allantonema mirabile''
*''
Bradynema rigidum''
Dorylaimida
Dorylaimida (dorylaims) is a diverse order of nematodes with both soil and freshwater species.
Taxonomy
History
The order originated with the description of '' Dorylaimus stagnalis'' by Dujardin in 1845, and in 1876 De MAn proposed the fam ...
*''
Dorylaimus liratus''
Nemertea
Nemertea is a phylum of animals also known as ribbon worms or proboscis worms, consisting of 1300 known species. Most ribbon worms are very slim, usually only a few millimeters wide, although a few have relatively short but wide bodies. Many h ...
(Ribbon worms)
*''
Prostoma eilhardi''
Arthropoda
Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a Segmentation (biology), segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and Arth ...
Clam shrimp
Clam shrimp are a group of bivalved branchiopod crustaceans that resemble the unrelated bivalved molluscs. They are extant and also known from the fossil record, from at least the Devonian period and perhaps before. They were originally classifi ...
*''
Eulimnadia texana''
*''
Eulimnadia africana''
*''
Eulimnadia agassizii''
*''
Eulimnadia antlei''
*''
Eulimnadia braueriana''
*''
Eulimnadia brasiliensis''
*''
Eulimnadia colombiensis''
*''
Eulimnadia cylondrova
''Eulimnadia'' is a genus of branchiopods in the family Limnadiidae. There are about 13 described species in ''Eulimnadia''.
Species
* '' Eulimnadia agassizii'' Packard, 1874
* '' Eulimnadia antillarum'' (Baird, 1852)
* '' Eulimnadia antlei'' ...
''
*''
Eulimnadia dahli
''Eulimnadia'' is a genus of branchiopod, branchiopods in the family Limnadiidae. There are about 13 described species in ''Eulimnadia''.
Species
* ''Eulimnadia agassizii'' Packard, 1874
* ''Eulimnadia antillarum'' (Baird, 1852)
* ''Eulimnadia a ...
''
*''
Eulimnadia diversa''
*''
Eulimnadia feriensis''
*''
Eulimnadia follisimilis''
*''
Eulimnadia thompsoni''
*''
Eulimnadia sp. A''
*''
Eulimnadia sp. B''
*''
Eulimnadia sp. C''
Tadpole shrimp
The order Notostraca, containing the single family Triopsidae, is a group of crustaceans known as tadpole shrimp or shield shrimp. The two genera, '' Triops'' and ''Lepidurus'', are considered living fossils, with similar forms having existed sinc ...
*''
Triops cancriformis
''Triops cancriformis'', European tadpole shrimp or tadpole shrimp, is a species of tadpole shrimp found in Europe to the Middle East and India.
Due to habitat destruction, many populations have recently been lost across its European range, s ...
''
*''
Triops newberryi
''Triops newberryi'' is a species of ''Triops'' found on the western coast of North America, commonly in valleys throughout the states of Washington, Oregon, California, and small areas of Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Mexico, with at least one ...
''
*''
Triops longicaudatus
''Triops longicaudatus'' (commonly called American tadpole shrimp or longtail tadpole shrimp) is a freshwater crustacean of the order Notostraca, resembling a miniature horseshoe crab. It is characterized by an elongated, segmented body, a flatten ...
''
Barnacles
A barnacle is a type of arthropod constituting the subclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence related to crabs and lobsters. Barnacles are exclusively marine, and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters, typically in eros ...
*''
Paralepas klepalae''
*''
Paralepas xenophorae''
*''
Koleolepas avis''
*''
Koleolepas tinkeri''
*''
Ibla quadrivalvis
''Ibla quadrivalvis'' is a species of barnacle in the Iblidae family. The common name for this species is hairy stalked barnacle.
The species was studied by Charles Darwin. He first described that this specie is androdioecious
Androdioecy is a ...
''
*''
Ibla cumingii''
*''
Ibla idiotica''
*''
Ibla segmentata''
*''
Calantica studeri''
*''
Calantica siemensi''
*''
Calantica spinosa''
*''
Calantica villosa
''Calantica'' is a genus of barnacles in the family Calanticidae, containing the following species:
*''Calantica affinis'' Broch, 1922
*''Calantica darwini'' Jones & Hosie, 2009
*''Calantica eos'' (Pilsbry, 1907)
*''Calantica flagellata'' Ren, ...
''
*''
Arcoscalpellum sp.''
*''
Euscalpellum squamuliferum''
*''
Scalpellum peronii''
*''
Scalpellum scalpellum''
*''
Scalpellum vulgare''
*''
Scillaelepas arnaudi''
*''
Scillaelepas bocquetae''
*''
Scillaelepas calyculacilla''
*''
Scillaelepas falcate''
*''
Scillaelepas fosteri''
*''
Smilium hastatum''
*''
Smilium peronii''
*''
Chelonibia patula''
*''
Chelonibia testudinaria''
*''
Bathylasma alearum''
*''
Bathylasma corolliforme''
*''
Conopea galeata''
*''
Conopea calceola''
*''
Conopea merrilli''
*''
Solidobalanus masignotus''
*''
Tetrapachylasma trigonum
''Tetrapachylasma'' is a genus of symmetrical sessile barnacles in the family Pachylasmatidae. There are about five described species in ''Tetrapachylasma''.
Species
These species belong to the genus ''Tetrapachylasma'':
* '' Tetrapachylasma arc ...
''
*''
Megalasma striatum''
*''
Octolasmis warwickii''
Lysmata
''Lysmata'' is a genus of shrimp in the infraorder Caridea, the caridean shrimp. The genus belongs to the family Lysmatidae. ''Lysmata'' are popular ornamental shrimp in the marine aquarium trade for their bright color patterns, interesting be ...
*''
Lysmata wurdemanni''
*''
Lysmata amboinensis
''Lysmata amboinensis'' is an omnivorous shrimp species known by several common names including the Pacific cleaner shrimp. It is considered a cleaner shrimp as eating parasites and dead tissue from fish makes up a large part of its diet. The spe ...
''
*''
Lysmata californica''
*''
Lysmata bahia
''Lysmata bahia'' is a species of saltwater shrimp
Shrimp are crustaceans (a form of shellfish) with elongated bodies and a primarily swimming mode of locomotion – most commonly Caridea and Dendrobranchiata of the decapod order, althou ...
''
*''
Lysmata intermedia''
*''
Lysmata grabhami''
*''
Lysmata seticaudata
''Lysmata'' is a genus of shrimp in the infraorder Caridea, the caridean shrimp. The genus belongs to the family Lysmatidae. ''Lysmata'' are popular ornamental shrimp in the marine aquarium trade for their bright color patterns, interesting beha ...
''
*''
Lysmata nilita''
*''
Lysmata hochi''
*''
Lysmata nayaritensis''
*''
Lysmata rafa
''Lysmata'' is a genus of shrimp in the infraorder Caridea, the caridean shrimp. The genus belongs to the family Lysmatidae. ''Lysmata'' are popular ornamental shrimp in the marine aquarium trade for their bright color patterns, interesting be ...
''
*''
Lysmata boggessi''
*''
Lysmata ankeri
''Lysmata ankeri'' is a species of saltwater shrimp
Shrimp are crustaceans (a form of shellfish) with elongated bodies and a primarily swimming mode of locomotion – most commonly Caridea and Dendrobranchiata of the decapod order, altho ...
''
*''
Lysmata pederseni''
*''
Lysmata debelius
''Lysmata debelius'' is a species of cleaner shrimp indigenous to the Indo-Pacific. It is popular in the aquarium trade, where it is known as the fire shrimp, blood shrimp or scarlet cleaner shrimp.
Taxonomy
''Lysmata debelius'' was first desc ...
''
*''
Lysmata galapaguensis''
*''
Lysmata cf. trisetacea''
Insects
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of j ...
*''
Icerya bimaculata''
*''
Icerya purchasi
''Icerya purchasi'' ( common name: cottony cushion scale) is a scale insect that feeds on more than 80 families of woody plants, most notably on ''Citrus'' and ''Pittosporum''. Originally described in 1878 from specimens collected in New Zealand ...
''
*''
Crypticerya zeteki''
Annelida (Ringed worms)
*''
Salvatoria clavata''
*''
Ophryotrocha gracilis''
*''
Ophryotrocha hartmanni
''Ophryotrocha'' is a genus of marine polychaete worms in the family Dorvilleidae.
Species
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species in the genus :
*'' Ophryotrocha adherens'' Paavo, Bailey-Brock & Akesson, 2000
*'' Oph ...
''
*''
Ophryotrocha diadema''
*''
Ophryotrocha bacci''
*''
Ophryotrocha maculata''
*''
Ophryotrocha socialis''
Chordata
A chordate () is an animal of the phylum Chordata (). All chordates possess, at some point during their larval or adult stages, five synapomorphies, or primary physical characteristics, that distinguish them from all the other taxa. These fiv ...
*''
Kryptolebias marmoratus
The mangrove killifish or mangrove rivulus, ''Kryptolebias marmoratus'' ( syn. ''Rivulus marmoratus''), is a species of killifish in the family Rivulidae. It lives in brackish and marine waters (less frequently in fresh water) along the coasts ...
''
*''
Serranus fasciatus''
*''
Serranus baldwini
''Serranus baldwini'', the lantern bass, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a sea bass from the subfamily Serraninae, classified as part of the family Serranidae which includes the groupers and anthias. It is found in the western Atlantic ...
''
Angiosperms
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
(Flowering plants)
*Some ''
Acer'' (maple) species
*''
Castilla elastica
''Castilla elastica'', the Panama rubber tree, is a tree native to the tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. It was the principal source of latex among the Mesoamerican peoples in pre-Columbian times. The latex g ...
''
*''
Culcita macrocarpa
''Culcita macrocarpa'', the woolly tree fern, is a species of fern in the family Culcitaceae native to Macaronesia and parts of the Iberian Peninsula, where it might have been introduced.
Description
''Culcita macrocarpa'' is a large plant tha ...
''
*''
Datisca cannabina'' (false hemp)
*''
Datisca glomerata
''Datisca glomerata'' is a species of plant native to California, Nevada, and Baja California known by the common name Durango root. It is one of only two to four species in the plant family Datiscaceae. It is an erect perennial herb with distin ...
'' (Durango root)
*''
Fraxinus lanuginosa
''Fraxinus lanuginosa'' (Japanese ash; Japanese language, Japanese: アオダモ Aodamo) is a species of ash tree, ash native to Japan and to the Primorye region of eastern Russia.
''Fraxinus lanuginosa''is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing ...
'' (Japanese ash)
*''
Fraxinus ornus''
*''
Fuchsia microphylla''
*''
Gagea serotina
''Gagea serotina'', synonym ''Lloydia serotina'', is an Arctic–alpine flowering plant of the lily family. It is widespread across the mountainous parts of western North America, from Alaska to New Mexico, and in Europe is found in the Alps an ...
''
*''
Mercurialis annua
''Mercurialis annua'' is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae known by the common name annual mercury or (rarely) French mercury. It is native to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East but it is known on many other c ...
'' (Annual mercury)
*''
Neobuxbaumia mezcalaensis''
*''
Nephelium lappaceum
Rambutan (; taxonomic name: ''Nephelium lappaceum'') is a medium-sized tropical tree in the family Sapindaceae. The name also refers to the edible fruit produced by this tree. The rambutan is native to Southeast Asia. It is closely related to se ...
'' (Rambutan)
*''
Panax trifolius
''Panax trifolius'', commonly called dwarf ginseng, is plant native to the Northeastern and Appalachian regions of North America. It is found in low mesic woods with acidic soils.
It produces an umbel of white flowers in late spring. This spe ...
'' (
Ginseng
Ginseng () is the root of plants in the genus ''Panax'', such as Korean ginseng ('' P. ginseng''), South China ginseng ('' P. notoginseng''), and American ginseng ('' P. quinquefolius''), typically characterized by the presence of ginsenosides an ...
)
*''
Oxalis suksdorfii
''Oxalis suksdorfii'' is a species of flowering plant in the woodsorrel family known by the common name western yellow woodsorrel and Suksdorf's woodsorrel. It is native to the western coast of the United States from Washington to northern Calif ...
''
*''
Phillyrea angustifolia
''Phillyrea angustifolia'', the narrow-leaved mock privet,RHS Plants. Available at: https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/24488/i-Phillyrea-angustifolia-i/Details ccessed 22/02/21/ref> is a species of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae, native ...
''
*''
Phillyrea latifolia
''Phillyrea latifolia'', commonly known as green olive tree or mock privet, is a species of tree in the family Oleaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin, from Morocco and Portugal in the west, to the Levant
The Levant () is an ...
''
*''
Ricinocarpus pinifolius''
*''
Sagittaria lancifolia
''Sagittaria lancifolia'', the bulltongue arrowhead, is a perennial, monocot plant in the family Alismataceae, genus ''Sagittaria'', with herbaceous growth patterns. It is native to the southeastern United States. It is known from every coastal ...
'' (sub-androdioecy)
*''
Saxifraga cernua
''Saxifraga cernua'', the drooping saxifrage, nodding saxifrage or bulblet saxifrage, is a flower common all over the Arctic, High Arctic. It stretches further south in mountainous areas of the Alps, Norway, Iceland, Siberia and Alaska.
It grow ...
''
*''
Schizopepon bryoniaefolius''
*''
Spinifex littoreus''
*''
Ulmus minor
''Ulmus minor'' Mill., the field elm, is by far the most polymorphic of the European species, although its taxonomy remains a matter of contention. Its natural range is predominantly south European, extending to Asia Minor and Iran; its northern ...
''
See also
*
Gynodioecy
Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism (exhibiting both fem ...
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Plant sexuality
Plant reproductive morphology is the study of the physical form and structure (the Plant morphology, morphology) of those parts of plants directly or indirectly concerned with sexual reproduction.
Among all living organisms, flowers, which are t ...
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Dioecy
Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproductio ...
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Trioecy
Trioecy, or subdioecy, is a rare sexual system characterized by the coexistence of males, females, and hermaphrodites. It has been found in both plants and animals. Trioecy is sometimes referred to as a mixed mating system alongside androdioecy an ...
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Hermaphrodite
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many Taxonomy (biology), taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrate ...
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Monoicy
Monoicy () is a sexual system in haploid plants (mainly bryophytes) where both sperm and eggs are produced on the same gametophyte, in contrast with dioicy, where each gametophyte produces only sperm or eggs but never both.Crandall-Stotler, B.J ...
References
External links
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*{{cite journal , last1 = Pennisi , first1 = Elizabeth , author-link = Elizabeth Pennisi , s2cid = 84857451 , year = 2006, title = Sex and the Single Killifish , url = http://www3.uakron.edu/biology/science06.pdf , journal = Science , volume = 313 , issue = 5792, page = 2006 , doi = 10.1126/science.313.5792.1381 , pmid = 16959986 , access-date = 2008-01-25 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081001223411/http://www3.uakron.edu/biology/science06.pdf , archive-date = 2008-10-01 , url-status = dead
*Diana Wolf
'Breeding systems: Evolution of androdioecy'
Sex
Mating systems
Sexual system