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The Supreme War Council was a central command based in
Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, ...
that coordinated the military strategy of the principal
Allies of World War I The Allies of World War I, Entente Powers, or Allied Powers were a coalition of countries led by France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States against the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottom ...
:
Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
, France, Italy, the US and
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. It was founded in 1917 after the
Russian revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...
and with Russia's withdrawal as an ally imminent. The council served as a second source of advice for civilian leadership, a forum for preliminary discussions of potential armistice terms, later for peace treaty settlement conditions, and it was succeeded by the
Conference of Ambassadors The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War ...
in 1920.


Formation

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is ...
David Lloyd George David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during ...
had grave concerns regarding the strategy of Sir William Robertson, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, and Sir
Douglas Haig Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, (; 19 June 1861 – 29 January 1928) was a senior officer of the British Army. During the First World War, he commanded the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front from late 1915 unt ...
, the Commander in Chief of the British Expeditionary Force, in response to the Allied losses at the Somme and
Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to cultur ...
. Also, following the Italian defeat at the
Battle of Caporetto The Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, the Battle of Kobarid or the Battle of Karfreit) was a battle on the Italian front of World War I. The battle was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Centra ...
, in which the Germans and Austro-Hungarians surprised the Italian forces, Lloyd George proposed the formation of a Supreme War Council at the Rapallo Conference of 5–7 November 1917. Japan and Russia were not to be included, and the Italians and French, worried that
Salonika Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
(and with it the only chance of liberating Serbia) might be evacuated, wanted issues confined to the Western Front.


Permanent Military Representatives

Each Allied nation would be represented by their head of state, and an appointed senior military officer known as the Permanent Military Representative (PMR). The French PMR was
Ferdinand Foch Ferdinand Foch ( , ; 2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general and military theorist who served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. An aggressive, even reckless commander at the First Marne, Flanders and ...
, later replaced by
Maxime Weygand Maxime Weygand (; 21 January 1867 – 28 January 1965) was a French military commander in World War I and World War II. Born in Belgium, Weygand was raised in France and educated at the Saint-Cyr military academy in Paris. After graduating in ...
and
Joseph Joffre Joseph Jacques Césaire Joffre (12 January 1852 – 3 January 1931) was a French general who served as Commander-in-Chief of French forces on the Western Front from the start of World War I until the end of 1916. He is best known for regroup ...
. The British were represented by Sir Henry Hughes Wilson. Italy was represented by
Luigi Cadorna Marshal of Italy Luigi Cadorna, (4 September 1850 – 21 December 1928) was an Italian general, Marshal of Italy and Count most famous for being the Chief of Staff of the Italian Army from 1914-1917 of World War I. Early career Luigi Cado ...
. The United States, which was "An Associated Power" of the Allies, was not involved with the political structure, but sent a Permanent Military Representative, General Tasker H. Bliss. General Wilson and his staff conducted numerous research projects into offensives against Turkey, culminating in "Joint Note# 12". At the Supreme War Council (30 January – 2 February)
Maurice Hankey Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, 1st Baron Hankey, (1 April 1877 – 26 January 1963) was a British civil servant who gained prominence as the first Cabinet Secretary (United Kingdom), Cabinet Secretary and later made the rare transition from the ci ...
recorded that the national Commanders-in-Chief, national Chiefs of Staff and PMRs "all gave different advice" creating "a worse state of chaos than I have ever known in all my wide experience". Lloyd George, whose main goal was to thwart Robertson, blocked a suggestion by Foch (French Chief of Staff) that the proposed Allied Reserve be controlled by the national Chiefs of Staff, possibly prompted by the notes Wilson was passing him across the table. It was eventually agreed that Foch should command the Reserve, with Wilson as his deputy. The Allied Reserve eventually slipped from the agenda as the Commanders-in-Chief, Haig and Pétain refused to hand over sufficient troops. Early in 1918, Wilson replaced Robertson as CIGS and at the end of March Foch became Allied
Generalissimo ''Generalissimo'' ( ) is a military rank of the highest degree, superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the states where they are used. Usage The word (), an Italian term, is the absolute superlative of ('general') thus ...
. After April 1918 all Allied troops on the Western Front were placed under the command of the , a multi-national general staff that developed from the Supreme War Council. The was on similar lines to the and came under General
Ferdinand Foch Ferdinand Foch ( , ; 2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general and military theorist who served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. An aggressive, even reckless commander at the First Marne, Flanders and ...
, who since 26 March 1918 had overall command of all Allied troops. Without its two main personalities the military machinery at Versailles became less important.


Meetings

Although the military council sat about once a week (90 meetings took place between November 1917 and November 1919), formal Interallied Conferences with Prime Ministers in attendance took place ten times during the lifespan of the Supreme War Council (SWC). Those meetings are listed below.


Wartime meetings


5-7 November 1917

At the Rapallo Conference, the formation of the Supreme War Council was approved by the Allied war leaders in the town of
Rapallo Rapallo ( , , ) is a municipality in the Metropolitan City of Genoa, located in the Liguria region of northern Italy. As of 2017 it had 29,778 inhabitants. It lies on the Ligurian Sea coast, on the Tigullio Gulf, between Portofino and Chiava ...
, Italy (close to the French border). The idea was thought up by the British, accepted by the French, and approved at a
British War Cabinet A war cabinet is a committee formed by a government in a time of war to efficiently and effectively conduct that war. It is usually a subset of the full executive cabinet of ministers, although it is quite common for a war cabinet to have senior ...
meeting on 2 November 1917. It was also decided that its headquarters would be in Versailles.


29 Nov to 3 Dec 1917

The first Interallied Conference in France took place in Paris at th
''Quai d'Orsay''
and a
''The Trianon Palace Hotel''
conference room in Versailles. This was the first appearance of Prime Minister Clemenceau, who took office on 14 November 1917. The four heads of state represented were Clemenceau,
David Lloyd George David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during ...
,
Vittorio Orlando Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (19 May 1860 – 1 December 1952) was an Italian statesman, who served as the Prime Minister of Italy from October 1917 to June 1919. Orlando is best known for representing Italy in the 1919 Paris Peace Conference with h ...
, and Colonel Edward House (for President Woodrow Wilson). Supporting the four were their permanent military representatives: General Maxime Weygand (France), General Henry Wilson (UK), General Luigi Cadorna (Italy) and General Tasker Bliss (US). The conference ended with the drafting of eight resolutions.


29 Jan to 2 Feb 1918

The third SWC Interallied Conference was held at
Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, ...
, just outside Paris. The Council agreed to a defensive plan on the Western Front for 1918, with an offensive operation against Turkey. Also, it was here that an Allied General Reserve was approved, consisting of 14 French, 9 British, and 7 Italian divisions. It was to be under the control of the SWC military chiefs, who, it was thought, would be in the best position to allocate manpower to the front in the event of a German attack. To streamline decision making, an Executive War Board was established, headed by General Ferdinand Foch. Between the third and fourth SWC meetings, resistance to the General Reserve by British General William Robertson caused him to be replaced. In early March, it was found that B.E.F. Commander
Douglas Haig Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, (; 19 June 1861 – 29 January 1928) was a senior officer of the British Army. During the First World War, he commanded the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front from late 1915 unt ...
, also refused to follow the SWC order. Allied with General Petain and Prime Minister Clemenceau, both of whom opposed the measure, the advocates of a General Reserve were thwarted. With a massive attack from Germany thought to be imminent, Lloyd George decided that it was too late to replace Haig and follow through with the plan. In addition to the establishment of a General Reserve, Prime Minister Clemenceau made an attempt at establishing unity of command. However, Prime Minister Lloyd George refused, citing "home politics" and problems with Parliament and the public. Lloyd George repeated his stand when talking to General Haig at GHQ.


13–15 March 1918

The fourth SWC Interallied Conference was held in London. Here, the General Reserve plan was cancelled. It was thought it would take three months to reposition divisions for the Reserve, when, in fact, the German attack was just 8 days away. This caused a great debate between General Ferdinand Foch and Prime Minister Clemenceau, and Prime Minister Lloyd George considered replacing Field Marshal Haig. In the absence of a General Reserve, the allies had to rely on a verbal mutual support agreement between General's Haig and Petain. The Council also put out an official statement about the Brest-Litovsk "peace" treaty made between Germany and Russia. Prime Minister Clemenceau made another attempt at establishing unity of command but was rebuffed by Lloyd George, who said Foch's appointment to the Executive War Board was a "great concession". General Henri Mordacq, Clemenceau's aide, said Britain only turned for unity of command at the last minute when her armies were about to be thrown into the sea.


1–2 May 1918

The fifth SWC Conference was held in Versailles and
Abbeville Abbeville (, vls, Abbekerke, pcd, Advile) is a commune in the Somme department and in Hauts-de-France region in northern France. It is the chef-lieu of one of the arrondissements of Somme. Located on the river Somme, it was the capital o ...
, France. The matter of American troops was discussed. A separate agreement made in late January between the United States and England provided that America would supply six complete divisions to France, transported in British ships, and trained by the British Army. Due to
Operation Michael Operation Michael was a major German military offensive during the First World War that began the German Spring Offensive on 21 March 1918. It was launched from the Hindenburg Line, in the vicinity of Saint-Quentin, France. Its goal was t ...
, the German attack on March 21, 1918, and the need for battlefield replacements, the SWC military generals issued Joint Note #18, which asked that the United States only send infantry and machine gun units to France. General Pershing agreed to the arrangement, but wanted to take it one month at a time. Prime Minister Clemenceau drafted the final agreement, which extended the plan for two months. At the prefect's (police chief's ?) house in Abbeville, at 10 am on May 2nd, a secret meeting took place to discuss the matter of a B.E.F. embarkment from the Channel Ports. In a time of crisis, if the Germans pushed the English toward the Channel Ports, should the B.E.F. retreat to England or move south and link up with the French? It was known that both Field Marshal Haig, and General Robertson's replacement, General Henry Wilson, both favored embarkation. This matter was discussed by the military generals before the official conference started. General Foch, who was present, would have none of it. When asked, he repeatedly answered, "Ne lachez pas pied" (Don't let go), and "Ni l'un ni l'autre. Cramponnez partout" (Neither. Cling Everywhere). At the start of the war, instructions from Field Marshal Kitchener to Field Marshal French (B.E.F. Commander at the time) authorized him, in the event of "unusual circumstances", to retreat to the Channel Ports, but not to evacuate. "The view taken at Abbeville was that the British should retire behind the Somme and abandon the Channel ports rather than lose touch with the French." Henry Wilson says this was unanimously agreed to. Because of this, instructions were reinforced on 21 June 1918 to order Field Marshal Haig to retreat south and link up with the French. Remarkably, twenty two years later, Lord Gort faced the same exact predicament when the Germans invaded France and the armored spearheads of the Wehrmacht advanced rapidly toward the Channel Ports. In defiance of orders, Gort asked for an evacuation, and he ordered the B.E.F. to retreat to the Channel Ports, where a hastily arranged embarkation took place. Although the Miracle of Dunkirk may have saved the British Army, Lord Gort was sidelined for the rest of his career.


1–3 June 1918

The sixth SWC Conference took place in Versailles. Here, the United States was asked for more reinforcements. Other issues discussed were amalgamation (the integration of US troops with the B.E.F.), and the pooling of allied supplies. Allied pessimism prevailed at this meeting. French divisions were down to 50% strength, and the British were not faring much better. The British, French and Italian Prime Ministers signed a letter to President Wilson that said, "there is a great danger of the war being lost ... owing to the allied reserves being exhausted before those of the enemy", and that the United States would have to raise 100 divisions, requiring the call up of 300,000 conscripts a month, to raise an army of 4 million men. General Pershing also cabled Washington D.C., saying, "It should be most fully realized at home that the time has come for us to take up the brunt of the war and that France and England are not going to be able to keep their armies at present strength very much longer." Also, "If the Allies had seen this a year or even six months earlier and had given us assistance in shipping"..."they could have assisted in the formation of a powerful American Army". Instead, "the number of training infantrymen in America will be practically exhausted by the middle of July, they he alliesstill insisted on a program of infantry personnel", and, "The Prime Ministers and General Foch appeal most urgently for trained or even untrained men." In his memoirs, Pershing says about raising the army, "In its execution as a whole, the achievement stands out as a lasting monument to our War Department, marred only by the lack of foresight that made it necessary to send over untrained men and units in precipitate haste." Per Lord Milner, some of the troops, "hardly knew how to handle a rifle". Originally planned for an army of 500,000 men, the draft had to be expanded four times before a 4 million man army could be raised.


2–4 July 1918

The seventh SWC Conference, held at Versailles, was attended by British Dominion Prime Ministers from Canada, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. This was the most difficult SWC yet, with Lloyd George angry with the French at completely directing the war and the French upset with Lloyd George's plan to reduce British forces on the front to reinforce Palestine. General Foch wanted a commitment that the British would keep their strength at 59 divisions, and he wanted to create a sixtieth from category "B" troops (those unfit for combat, but suitable for home defence). Lloyd George said manpower resources made this impossible. Meanwhile, the mission to Murmansk moved forward.


5 October 1918

The British receive news that Germany, Austria and Turkey informed the US Government that they were ready to negotiate peace on the basis of President Wilson's Fourteen Points,


30 Oct to 10 Nov 1918

The eighth, and longest SWC Conference took place in Versailles. Here, the Armistice terms were drafted for the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.


Peacetime meetings

During the Paris Peace Negotiations, which took place from 12 January to 26 June 1919, the Supreme War Council became the "Council of Ten" in mid January, and later the "Council of Four" (Big Four) in mid March, as President Wilson and Prime Ministers Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Orlando did most of the work constructing the
Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles (french: Traité de Versailles; german: Versailler Vertrag, ) was the most important of the peace treaties of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June ...
. As the host nation, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau presided over the meetings.


14–16 January 1920 in Paris, France

This meeting was held four days after the ratification of the
Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles (french: Traité de Versailles; german: Versailler Vertrag, ) was the most important of the peace treaties of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June ...
.
Lloyd George David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during t ...
proposed dropping the blockade of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic by starting negotiations with the "Russian people" in the form of the centrosoyuz, which at that time was not controlled by the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
. This was agreed, with a communique from the Council being published on 16 January. In the event, the negotiations soon became simply between the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and No ...
and a bolshevised centrosoyuz, leading to the
Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement The Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was an agreement signed on 16 March 1921 to facilitate trade between the United Kingdom and the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic. It was signed by Robert Horne, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leonid Krasi ...
.


6–16 July 1920 in Spa, Belgium

This was attended by German delegates to discuss
war reparations War reparations are compensation payments made after a war by one side to the other. They are intended to cover damage or injury inflicted during a war. History Making one party pay a war indemnity is a common practice with a long history. R ...
. Related documents: * "Agreement between the Allies for the settlement of certain questions as to the application of the Treaties of Peace and complementary agreements with Germany,
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populou ...
,
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croa ...
and
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
" * "Protocol of the Conference at Spa on July 16, 1920" * "Inter-Allied Agreement in regard to advance to the German Government in accordance with Protocol of July 16 regarding coal deliveries"LG/F/148/4/3 in Lloyd George papers, see /www.portcullis.parliament.uk


References


Sources

* Amery, Leo
''My Political Life, Vol II, 1914-1929''
London: Hutchinson, 1953 * Callwell, Sir C.E.
''Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson, his life and times, Volume II''
London: Cassell, 1927 * Churchill, Winston
''The World Crisis, 1916-1918, Volume II''
London: Thornton, 1927 * Colville, J. R.
''Man of Valour''
London: Collins, 1972 * Cooper, Duff
''Haig, The Second Volume''
London: Faber and Faber, 1936 * Edmonds, Sir James E
''History of the Great War, Vol VIII, Military Operations, the March Offensive, 1918''
London: MacMillan, 1935 * Foch, Ferdinand (translated by Colonel Bentley Mott)
''The Memoirs of Marshal Foch''
London: Willam Heinemann, 1931 * * Lloyd George, David
''War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. IV''
Boston: Little Brown, 1934 ** Lloyd George, David
''War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. V''
Boston: Little Brown, 1936 ** Lloyd George, David
''War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. VI''
Boston: Little Brown, 1937 * Marlowe, John
''Milner: Apostle of Empire''
London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976 * Mordacq, Henri, ''Unity of Command: How it Was Achieved'', Paris: Tallandier, 1929 (translated from french) * O'Brien, Terence, ''Milner'', London: Constable, 1979 * Palmer, Frederick
''Bliss, peacemaker; the life and letters of General Tasker Howard Bliss''
Freeport, NY: Libraries Press, 1934 * Pershing, John J., ''My Experiences in the World War, Vol. II'', New York: Frederick Stokes, 1931 * Powell, Geoffrey, ''Plumer: The Soldier's General'', London: Leo Cooper, 1990 * * Roskill, Stephen
''Hankey: Man of Secrets, Volume I, 1877-1918''
London: Collins, 1970 * Shotwell, James, ''At the Paris Peace Conference'', New York: MacMillan, 1937
''The Times (of London)''''archive''
(requires a subscription) * Woodward, David R., ''Field Marshal Sir William Robertson'', Westport Connecticut & London: Praeger, 1998, * Wright, Peter
''At the Supreme War Council''
New York: G.P. Puntam, 1921

First World War.com, accessed 6 August 2009 * author unknown
''A League of Nations''
Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1918 (OCLC Number: 5455525) * Archive.or
(''sign up to view sources and references'')
* UK National Archive

* * LG/F/148/4/1, 2 & 3 in Lloyd George papers, se
''UK Parliament Archives''


Further reading

* Grant, 3rd, U.S. "America's Part in the Supreme War Council during the World War" ''Records of the Columbia Historical Society'' (1928), Vol. 29/30, pp. 295-34
online
* author unknown
''Records of the American Section of the Supreme War Council, 1917-1919''
Washington D.C.: National Archives, 1973 * Lonergan, Thomas
''It Might Have Been Lost''
New York: Putnam, 1929 * History.com
''Allies Argue Over U.S. Troops Joining Battle on Western Front''
* "United Kingdom National Archives, CAB 24-58", ''Notes on the American Army, July 16, 1918''
''pgs. 114-116 of 390''
{{Authority control 1919 establishments in France 1919 establishments in Italy 1919 establishments in Japan 1919 establishments in the United Kingdom 1919 establishments in the United States Politics of World War I France in World War I Italy in World War I Japan in World War I United Kingdom in World War I United States in World War I France–Italy military relations France–Japan military relations France–United Kingdom military relations France–United States military relations Italy–Japan relations Italy–United Kingdom military relations Italy–United States military relations United Kingdom–United States military relations