TheInfoList

In
mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and their changes (cal ...
, particularly in
set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, set theory, as a branch of mathematics, i ...
, the aleph numbers are a
sequence In mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and t ...

of numbers used to represent the
cardinality In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
(or size) of
infinite set In set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any ...
s that can be
well-ordered In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
. They were introduced by the mathematician
Georg Cantor Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( , ;  – January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician. He created set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence be ...
and are named after the symbol he used to denote them, the
Hebrew Hebrew (, , or ) is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites, Judeans and their ancestors. It is the o ...

letter
aleph Aleph (or alef or alif, transliterated ʾ) is the first letter Letter, letters, or literature may refer to: Characters typeface * Letter (alphabet) A letter is a segmental symbol A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, sig ...

($\aleph$). (Though in older mathematics books, the letter aleph is often printed upside down by accident,For example, in the letter aleph appears both the right way up and upside down partly because a
monotype Monotyping is a type of printmaking 300px, Rembrandt, ''Self-portrait'', etching">Self-portrait.html" ;"title="Rembrandt, ''Self-portrait">Rembrandt, ''Self-portrait'', etching, c.1630 Printmaking is the process of creating artworks by ...
matrix for aleph was mistakenly constructed the wrong way up). The cardinality of the
natural number In mathematics, the natural numbers are those numbers used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and total order, ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the country"). In common mathematical terminology, w ...
s is $\aleph_0$ (read ''aleph-nought'' or ''aleph-zero''; the term ''aleph-null'' is also sometimes used), the next larger cardinality of a
well-order In mathematics, a well-order (or well-ordering or well-order relation) on a Set (mathematics), set ''S'' is a total order on ''S'' with the property that every non-empty subset of ''S'' has a least element in this ordering. The set ''S'' together ...
able set is aleph-one $\aleph_1$, then $\aleph_2$ and so on. Continuing in this manner, it is possible to define a
cardinal number 150px, Aleph null, the smallest infinite cardinal In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and ca ...
$\aleph_\alpha$ for every
ordinal number In set theory illustrating the intersection of two sets Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a s ...
$\alpha$, as described below. The concept and notation are due to
Georg Cantor Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( , ;  – January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician. He created set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence be ...
, who defined the notion of cardinality and realized that infinite sets can have different cardinalities. The aleph numbers differ from the
infinity Infinity is that which is boundless, endless, or larger than any number A number is a mathematical object A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics. In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is anything ...
($\infty$) commonly found in algebra and calculus, in that the alephs measure the sizes of sets, while infinity is commonly defined either as an extreme
limit Limit or Limits may refer to: Arts and media * Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony * Limit (song), "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea * Limits (Paenda song), "Limits" (Paenda song), 2019 song that represented Austria in the Eurov ...
of the
real number line Real may refer to: Currencies * Brazilian real The Brazilian real ( pt, real, plural, pl. '; currency symbol, sign: R\$; ISO 4217, code: BRL) is the official currency of Brazil. It is subdivided into 100 centavos. The Central Bank of Brazil i ...

(applied to a
function Function or functionality may refer to: Computing * Function key A function key is a key on a computer A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Modern comp ...
or
sequence In mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and t ...

that " diverges to infinity" or "increases without bound"), or as an extreme point of the
extended real number line In mathematics, the affinely extended real number system is obtained from the real number system \R by adding two infinity elements: +\infty and where the infinities are treated as actual numbers. It is useful in describing the algebra on infiniti ...
.

# Aleph-nought

$\aleph_0$ (aleph-nought, also aleph-zero or aleph-null) is the cardinality of the set of all natural numbers, and is an infinite cardinal. The set of all finite ordinals, called $\omega$ or $\omega_$ (where $\omega$ is the lowercase Greek letter
omega Omega (; capital Capital most commonly refers to: * Capital letter Letter case (or just case) is the distinction between the letters that are in larger uppercase or capitals (or more formally ''majuscule'') and smaller lowercase (o ...

), has cardinality $\aleph_0$. A set has cardinality $\aleph_0$ if and only if it is
countably infinite In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
, that is, there is a
bijection In , a bijection, bijective function, one-to-one correspondence, or invertible function, is a between the elements of two , where each element of one set is paired with exactly one element of the other set, and each element of the other set is p ...

(one-to-one correspondence) between it and the natural numbers. Examples of such sets are * the set of all
integer An integer (from the Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium. Through the power of the Roman Re ...
s, * any infinite subset of the integers, such as the set of all
square numbers In Euclidean geometry Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to Alexandrian Greek mathematics , Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry: the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements''. Euclid's method c ...
or the set of all
prime numbers A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and total order, ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the coun ...

, * the set of all
rational number In mathematics, a rational number is a number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction (mathematics), fraction of two integers, a numerator and a non-zero denominator . For example, is a rational number, as is every integer (e.g. ) ...
s, * the set of all
constructible number In geometry Geometry (from the grc, γεωμετρία; ''wikt:γῆ, geo-'' "earth", ''wikt:μέτρον, -metron'' "measurement") is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space ...
s (in the geometric sense), * the set of all
algebraic number An algebraic number is any complex number In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus ...
s, * the set of all
computable number In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
s, * the set of all binary
string String or strings may refer to: *String (structure), a long flexible structure made from threads twisted together, which is used to tie, bind, or hang other objects Arts, entertainment, and media Films * Strings (1991 film), ''Strings'' (1991 fil ...
s of finite length, and * the set of all finite
subset In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). ...

s of any given countably infinite set. These infinite ordinals: $\omega$, $\omega+1$, $\omega\cdot2$, $\omega^$, $\omega^$ and $\varepsilon_$ are among the countably infinite sets. For example, the sequence (with ordinality ω·2) of all positive odd integers followed by all positive even integers :$\$ is an ordering of the set (with cardinality $\aleph_0$) of positive integers. If the
axiom of countable choice The axiom of countable choice or axiom of denumerable choice, denoted ACω, is an axiom An axiom, postulate or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The ...

(a weaker version of the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product#Infinite Cartesian products, Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the a ...

) holds, then $\aleph_0$ is smaller than any other infinite cardinal.

# Aleph-one

$\aleph_1$ is the cardinality of the set of all countable
ordinal number In set theory illustrating the intersection of two sets Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a s ...
s, called $\omega_$ or sometimes $\Omega$. This $\omega_$ is itself an ordinal number larger than all countable ones, so it is an
uncountable set In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
. Therefore, $\aleph_1$ is distinct from $\aleph_0$. The definition of $\aleph_1$ implies (in ZF,
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory In set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any t ...
''without'' the axiom of choice) that no cardinal number is between $\aleph_0$ and $\aleph_1$. If the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product#Infinite Cartesian products, Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the a ...

is used, it can be further proved that the class of cardinal numbers is
totally ordered In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). I ...
, and thus $\aleph_1$ is the second-smallest infinite cardinal number. Using the axiom of choice, one can show one of the most useful properties of the set $\omega_$: any countable subset of $\omega_$ has an upper bound in $\omega_.$ (This follows from the fact that the union of a countable number of countable sets is itself countable—one of the most common applications of the axiom of choice.) This fact is analogous to the situation in $\aleph_0$: every finite set of natural numbers has a maximum which is also a natural number, and finite unions of finite sets are finite. $\omega_$ is actually a useful concept, if somewhat exotic-sounding. An example application is "closing" with respect to countable operations; e.g., trying to explicitly describe the $\sigma$-algebra generated by an arbitrary collection of subsets (see e.g.
Borel hierarchyIn mathematical logic, the Borel hierarchy is a stratification of the Borel algebra generated by the open subsets of a Polish space; elements of this algebra are called Borel sets. Each Borel set is assigned a unique countable ordinal number called ...
). This is harder than most explicit descriptions of "generation" in algebra (
vector space In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). ...
s,
group A group is a number A number is a mathematical object used to counting, count, measurement, measure, and nominal number, label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with ...
s, etc.) because in those cases we only have to close with respect to finite operations—sums, products, and the like. The process involves defining, for each countable ordinal, via
transfinite induction Transfinite induction is an extension of mathematical induction Image:Dominoeffect.png, Mathematical induction can be informally illustrated by reference to the sequential effect of falling Domino effect, dominoes. Mathematical induction is a m ...
, a set by "throwing in" all possible countable unions and complements, and taking the union of all that over all of $\omega_$. Every uncountable coanalytic subset of a
Polish space In the mathematical discipline of general topology, a Polish space is a separable space, separable Completely metrizable space, completely metrizable topological space; that is, a space homeomorphic to a Complete space, complete metric space that ha ...
$X$ has cardinality $\aleph_1$ or $2^$.

# Continuum hypothesis

The
cardinality In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
of the set of
real number In mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers ( and ), formulas and related structures (), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (), and quantities and their changes ( and ). There is no g ...
s (
cardinality of the continuum In set theory illustrating the intersection of two sets Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, ...
) is $2^$. It cannot be determined from ZFC (
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory In set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any t ...
with the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product#Infinite Cartesian products, Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the a ...

) where this number fits exactly in the aleph number hierarchy, but it follows from ZFC that the continuum hypothesis, CH, is equivalent to the identity The CH states that there is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the integers and the real numbers. CH is independent of ZFC: it can be neither proven nor disproven within the context of that axiom system (provided that ZFC is
consistent In classical deductive logic Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logical conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditiona ...

). That CH is consistent with ZFC was demonstrated by
Kurt Gödel Kurt Friedrich Gödel ( , ; April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was a logician Logic is an interdisciplinary field which studies truth Truth is the property of being in accord with fact or reality.Merriam-Webster's Online Dict ...
in 1940, when he showed that its negation is not a theorem of ZFC. That it is independent of ZFC was demonstrated by
Paul Cohen :''For other people named Paul Cohen, see Paul Cohen (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Paul Cohn.'' Paul Joseph Cohen (April 2, 1934 – March 23, 2007) was an United States, American mathematician. He is best known for his proofs that t ...

in 1963, when he showed conversely that the CH itself is not a theorem of ZFC—by the (then novel) method of forcing.

# Aleph-omega

Aleph-omega is :$\aleph_\omega = \sup \ = \sup \$ where the smallest infinite ordinal is denoted ω. That is, the cardinal number $\aleph_\omega$ is the least upper bound of $\aleph_\omega$ is the first uncountable cardinal number that can be demonstrated within Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory ''not'' to be equal to the cardinality of the set of all
real number In mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers ( and ), formulas and related structures (), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (), and quantities and their changes ( and ). There is no g ...
s; for any positive integer ''n'' we can consistently assume that $2^ = \aleph_n$, and moreover it is possible to assume $2^$ is as large as we like. We are only forced to avoid setting it to certain special cardinals with
cofinality In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
$\aleph_0$, meaning there is an unbounded function from $\aleph_0$ to it (see
Easton's theoremIn set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any typ ...
).

# Aleph-$\alpha$ for general $\alpha$

To define $\aleph_\alpha$ for arbitrary ordinal number $\alpha$, we must define the successor cardinal operation, which assigns to any cardinal number $\rho$ the next larger
well-order In mathematics, a well-order (or well-ordering or well-order relation) on a Set (mathematics), set ''S'' is a total order on ''S'' with the property that every non-empty subset of ''S'' has a least element in this ordering. The set ''S'' together ...
ed cardinal $\rho^$ (if the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product#Infinite Cartesian products, Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the a ...

holds, this is the next larger cardinal). We can then define the aleph numbers as follows: and for λ, an infinite
limit ordinal In set theory, a limit ordinal is an ordinal number that is neither zero nor a successor ordinal. Alternatively, an ordinal λ is a limit ordinal if there is an ordinal less than λ, and whenever β is an ordinal less than λ, then there exists an ...
, The α-th infinite
initial ordinal The von Neumann cardinal assignment is a cardinal assignment which uses ordinal number In set theory, an ordinal number, or ordinal, is one generalization of the concept of a natural number that is used to describe a way to arrange a (possibly ...
is written $\omega_\alpha$. Its cardinality is written $\aleph_\alpha$. In ZFC, the aleph function $\aleph$ is a bijection from the ordinals to the infinite cardinals.

# Fixed points of omega

For any ordinal α we have In many cases $\omega_$ is strictly greater than α. For example, for any successor ordinal α this holds. There are, however, some limit ordinals which are fixed points of the omega function, because of the
fixed-point lemma for normal functions The fixed-point lemma for normal functions is a basic result in axiomatic set theory stating that any normal function has arbitrarily large fixed point (mathematics), fixed points (Levy 1979: p. 117). It was first proved by Oswald Veblen in 19 ...
. The first such is the limit of the sequence Any weakly inaccessible cardinal is also a fixed point of the aleph function. This can be shown in ZFC as follows. Suppose $\kappa = \aleph_\lambda$ is a weakly inaccessible cardinal. If $\lambda$ were a
successor ordinalIn set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any typ ...
, then $\aleph_\lambda$ would be a
successor cardinalIn set theory, one can define a successor operation on cardinal numbers in a similar way to the successor operation on the ordinal numbers. The cardinal successor coincides with the ordinal successor for finite cardinals, but in the infinite case the ...
and hence not weakly inaccessible. If $\lambda$ were a
limit ordinal In set theory, a limit ordinal is an ordinal number that is neither zero nor a successor ordinal. Alternatively, an ordinal λ is a limit ordinal if there is an ordinal less than λ, and whenever β is an ordinal less than λ, then there exists an ...
less than $\kappa$, then its
cofinality In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
(and thus the cofinality of $\aleph_\lambda$) would be less than $\kappa$ and so $\kappa$ would not be regular and thus not weakly inaccessible. Thus $\lambda \geq \kappa$ and consequently $\lambda = \kappa$ which makes it a fixed point.

# Role of axiom of choice

The cardinality of any infinite
ordinal number In set theory illustrating the intersection of two sets Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a s ...
is an aleph number. Every aleph is the cardinality of some ordinal. The least of these is its
initial ordinal The von Neumann cardinal assignment is a cardinal assignment which uses ordinal number In set theory, an ordinal number, or ordinal, is one generalization of the concept of a natural number that is used to describe a way to arrange a (possibly ...
. Any set whose cardinality is an aleph is
equinumerous In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
with an ordinal and is thus
well-order In mathematics, a well-order (or well-ordering or well-order relation) on a Set (mathematics), set ''S'' is a total order on ''S'' with the property that every non-empty subset of ''S'' has a least element in this ordering. The set ''S'' together ...
able. Each
finite set In mathematics Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and t ...
is well-orderable, but does not have an aleph as its cardinality. The assumption that the cardinality of each
infinite set In set theory illustrating the intersection (set theory), intersection of two set (mathematics), sets. Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which informally are collections of objects. Although any ...
is an aleph number is equivalent over ZF to the existence of a well-ordering of every set, which in turn is equivalent to the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product#Infinite Cartesian products, Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the a ...

. ZFC set theory, which includes the axiom of choice, implies that every infinite set has an aleph number as its cardinality (i.e. is equinumerous with its initial ordinal), and thus the initial ordinals of the aleph numbers serve as a class of representatives for all possible infinite cardinal numbers. When cardinality is studied in ZF without the axiom of choice, it is no longer possible to prove that each infinite set has some aleph number as its cardinality; the sets whose cardinality is an aleph number are exactly the infinite sets that can be well-ordered. The method of Scott's trick is sometimes used as an alternative way to construct representatives for cardinal numbers in the setting of ZF. For example, one can define card(''S'') to be the set of sets with the same cardinality as ''S'' of minimum possible rank. This has the property that card(''S'') = card(''T'') if and only if ''S'' and ''T'' have the same cardinality. (The set card(''S'') does not have the same cardinality of ''S'' in general, but all its elements do.)

*
Beth number In mathematics, the beth numbers are a certain sequence of infinite set, infinite cardinal numbers, conventionally written \beth_0,\ \beth_1,\ \beth_2,\ \beth_3,\ \dots, where \beth is the second Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew letter (bet (letter), beth). ...
* Gimel function *
Regular cardinalIn set theory, a regular cardinal is a cardinal number that is equal to its own cofinality. More explicitly, this means that \kappa is a regular cardinal if and only if every unbounded subset C \subseteq \kappa has cardinality \kappa. Infinite wel ...
*
Transfinite number In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It h ...
*
Ordinal number In set theory Set theory is the branch of that studies , which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, set theory, as a branch of , is mostly concerned with those that ...

*