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Albert Hofmann (11 January 1906 – 29 April 2008) was a Swiss chemist known for being the first to synthesize,
ingest Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism. In animals, it normally is accomplished by taking in a substance through the mouth into the gastrointestinal tract, such as through eating or drinking. In single-celled organisms ingesti ...
, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann's team also isolated, named and synthesized the principal psychedelic mushroom compounds psilocybin and psilocin. He authored more than 100 scientific articles and numerous books, including ''LSD: Mein Sorgenkind'' (''LSD: My Problem Child''). In 2007, he shared first place with
Tim Berners-Lee Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee (born 8 June 1955), also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. He is a Professorial Fellow of Computer Science at the University of Oxford and a profes ...
on a list of the 100 greatest living geniuses published by ''The Daily Telegraph'' newspaper.


Early life and education

Albert Hofmann was born in
Baden Baden (; ) is a historical territory in South Germany, in earlier times on both sides of the Upper Rhine but since the Napoleonic Wars only East of the Rhine. History The margraves of Baden originated from the House of Zähringen. Baden i ...
, Switzerland, on 11 January 1906. He was the first of four children to factory toolmaker Adolf Hofmann and Elisabeth ( Schenk) and was baptized Protestant. When his father became ill, Hofmann obtained a position as a commercial apprentice in concurrence with his studies. At age 20, Hofmann began his chemistry degree at the University of Zürich, finishing three years later, in 1929. Owing to his father's low income, Albert's godfather paid for his education. Hofmann's main interest was the chemistry of plants and animals, and he later conducted important research on the chemical structure of the common animal substance
chitin Chitin ( C8 H13 O5 N)n ( ) is a long-chain polymer of ''N''-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is probably the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chit ...
, for which he received his doctorate with distinction in 1929.


Career

Of his decision to pursue a career as a chemist, Hofmann provided insight during a speech he delivered to the 1996 Worlds of Consciousness Conference in Heidelberg, Germany:


Discovery of LSD

In 1929 Hofmann became an employee of the pharmaceutical/chemical department of Sandoz Laboratories (now a subsidiary of
Novartis Novartis AG is a Swiss-American multinational pharmaceutical corporation based in Basel, Switzerland and Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States (global research).name="novartis.com">https://www.novartis.com/research-development/research-lo ...
) as a coworker of
Arthur Stoll Arthur Stoll (8 January 1887 – 13 January 1971) was a Swiss biochemist. Education and career The son of a teacher and school headmaster, he studied chemistry at the ETH Zurich, with a PhD in 1911, where he studied with Richard Willstätter. ...
, founder and director of the pharmaceutical department. He began studying the medicinal plant (squill) and the fungus
ergot Ergot ( ) or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus ''Claviceps''. The most prominent member of this group is '' Claviceps purpurea'' ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that c ...
as part of a program to purify and synthesize active constituents for use as
pharmaceuticals A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and re ...
. His main contribution was to elucidate the chemical structure of the common nucleus of the
glycoside In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
s (an active principle of Mediterranean squill). While researching lysergic acid derivatives, Hofmann first synthesized LSD on 16 November 1938. The main intention of the synthesis was to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant ( analeptic) with no effects on the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
in analogy to nikethamide (which is also a diethylamide) by introducing this
functional group In organic chemistry, a functional group is a substituent or moiety in a molecule that causes the molecule's characteristic chemical reactions. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reactions regardless of the r ...
to lysergic acid. It was set aside for five years, until 16 April 1943, when Hofmann decided to reexamine it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small amount of the drug through his fingertips and discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being: Three days later, on 19 April 1943, Hofmann intentionally ingested 250 micrograms of LSD. This trip was not as pleasant, as he said those around him appeared to become demons, furniture shifted into wicked creatures and he himself felt demonically possessed. This day is now known as " Bicycle Day", because he began to feel the effects of the drug as he rode home on a bike. This was the first intentional LSD trip. Hofmann's research with LSD influenced several psychiatrists, including
Ronald A. Sandison Ronald Arthur Sandison (1 April 1916 – 18 June 2010) was a British psychiatrist and psychotherapist. Among his other work. he is particularly noted for his pioneering studies and use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as a psychotheraputi ...
, who developed its use in psychotherapy. Sandison's treatment at
Powick Hospital Powick Hospital, which opened in 1847 was a psychiatric facility located on outside the village of Powick, near Malvern, Worcestershire. At its peak, the hospital housed around 1,000 patients in buildings designed for 400. During the 1950s the h ...
in England received international acclaim. Hofmann continued to take small doses of LSD throughout his life, and always hoped to find a use for it. In his memoir, he emphasized it as a "sacred drug": "I see the true importance of LSD in the possibility of providing material aid to meditation aimed at the mystical experience of a deeper, comprehensive reality."


Further research

Hofmann later discovered
4-Acetoxy-DET 4-Acetoxy-DET (4-Acetoxy-''N'',''N''-diethyltryptamine), also known as ethacetin, ethylacybin or 4-AcO-DET, is a psychedelic tryptamine. It was first synthesized in 1958 by Albert Hofmann in the Sandoz lab.
, a hallucinogenic tryptamine. He first synthesized 4-AcO-DET in 1958 in the Sandoz lab. Hofmann became director of Sandoz's natural products department and continued studying hallucinogenic substances found in Mexican
mushroom A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
s and other plants used by aboriginal people there. This led to the isolation and synthesis of psilocybin, the active agent of many " magic mushrooms". Hofmann also became interested in the seeds of the Mexican morning glory species , called by natives. He was surprised to find the active compound of , ergine (LSA, lysergic acid amide), to be closely related to LSD. In 1962, Hofmann and his wife Anita Hofmann traveled to Mexico to search for the psychoactive plant "Ska Maria Pastora" (Leaves of Mary the Shepherdess), later known as . He was able to obtain samples of it, but never succeeded in identifying its active compound, which has since been identified as salvinorin A. In 1963, Hofmann attended the annual convention of the World Academy of Arts and Sciences (WAAS) in
Stockholm Stockholm () is the capital and largest city of Sweden as well as the largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people live in the municipality, with 1.6 million in the urban area, and 2.4 million in the metropo ...
.


Later years

Interviewed shortly before his 100th birthday, Hofmann called LSD "medicine for the soul" and was frustrated by its worldwide prohibition. "It was used very successfully for ten years in psychoanalysis," he said, adding that the drug was misused by the
counterculture of the 1960s The counterculture of the 1960s was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed throughout much of the Western world in the 1960s and has been ongoing to the present day. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the civil rights mo ...
, and then criticized unfairly by the political establishment of the day. He conceded that it could be dangerous if misused, because a relatively high dose of 500 micrograms has an extremely powerful psychoactive effect, especially if administered to a first-time user without adequate supervision. In December 2007, Swiss medical authorities allowed psychotherapist Peter Gasser to perform psychotherapeutic experiments on patients with terminal-stage cancer and other terminal diseases. Completed in 2011, these represent the first study of the therapeutic effects of LSD on humans in 35 years; other studies had examined the drug's effects on consciousness and body. Hofmann acclaimed the study and reiterated his belief in LSD's therapeutic benefits. In 2008, he wrote to
Steve Jobs Steven Paul Jobs (February 24, 1955 – October 5, 2011) was an American entrepreneur, industrial designer, media proprietor, and investor. He was the co-founder, chairman, and CEO of Apple; the chairman and majority shareholder of Pixar; ...
, asking him to support this research; it is not known whether Jobs responded. The
Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is an American nonprofit organization working to raise awareness and understanding of psychedelic substances. MAPS was founded in 1986 by Rick Doblin and is now based in San Jose, C ...
(MAPS) has supported psychoanalytic research using LSD, carrying on Hofmann's legacy and setting the groundwork for future studies. Hofmann was a longtime friend and correspondent of German author and entomologist Ernst Jünger, whom he met in 1949. Jünger experimented with LSD with Hofmann; in 1970, Jünger published a book of his experiences taking several types of drugs, ''Approaches: Drugs and Intoxication'' (german: Annäherungen. Drogen und Rausch, link=no).


Archives

After retiring from Sandoz in 1971, Hofmann was allowed to take his papers and research home. He gave his archives to the Albert Hofmann Foundation, a
Los Angeles Los Angeles ( ; es, Los Ángeles, link=no , ), often referred to by its initials L.A., is the largest city in the state of California and the second most populous city in the United States after New York City, as well as one of the world ...
-based nonprofit, but the documents mostly sat in storage for years. The archives were sent to the San Francisco area in 2002 to be digitized, but that process was never completed. In 2013, the archives were sent to the Institute of Medical History in
Bern german: Berner(in)french: Bernois(e) it, bernese , neighboring_municipalities = Bremgarten bei Bern, Frauenkappelen, Ittigen, Kirchlindach, Köniz, Mühleberg, Muri bei Bern, Neuenegg, Ostermundigen, Wohlen bei Bern, Zollikofen , website ...
,
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
, where they are being organized. Hofmann felt that everyone should try his drug.


Death

Hofmann died at the age of 102 from a heart attack on 29 April 2008 in
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
.


Honors and awards

The ''Swiss Federal Institute of Technology'' (
ETH Zurich (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , a ...
) honored him with the title DSc (honoris causa) in 1969 together with
Gustav Guanella Gustav Guanella (21 June 1909 – 12 January 1982) was a Swiss inventor who held numerous patents. Life Guanella was born in Chur, then educated in Lucerne, Switzerland. He finished high school in 1929, studied electrical engineering at the Swis ...
, his brother-in-law. In 1971 the
Swedish Pharmaceutical Association Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
granted him the
Scheele Award The Scheele Award () is a scientific award given by the Swedish , an organisation mainly consisting of pharmacists. The award is given to commemorate the pharmacist and chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786) and has been appointed since 1961, ...
, which commemorates the skills and achievements of the Swedish Pomerania chemist and pharmacist
Carl Wilhelm Scheele Carl Wilhelm Scheele (, ; 9 December 1742 – 21 May 1786) was a Swedish German pharmaceutical chemist. Scheele discovered oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first), and identified molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydr ...
.


Publications


Books

* ''LSD - mein Sorgenkind''. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta (1979); translated
''LSD—My Problem Child''.
New York:
McGraw-Hill McGraw Hill is an American educational publishing company and one of the "big three" educational publishers that publishes educational content, software, and services for pre-K through postgraduate education. The company also publishes refere ...
(1980)


Public speaking


"Transcript of a Special Videotaped Message From Albert Hofmann to the Participants at the April 16 & 17, 1993 Symposiums on the 50th Anniversary of his Discovery of LSD."
''MAPS , Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies'', vol. 4, no. 2 (Summer 1993), p. 56.


See also

* History of lysergic acid diethylamide * Drug design * Psychedelic therapy * James Fadiman * David E. Nichols *
Alexander Shulgin Alexander Theodore "Sasha" Shulgin (June 17, 1925 – June 2, 2014) was an American medicinal chemist, biochemist, organic chemist, pharmacologist, psychopharmacologist, and author. He is credited with introducing 3,4-methylenedioxymetha ...
* Owsley Stanley


References


Further reading

*Horowitz, Michael
"Interview with Albert Hofmann"
''High Times'' (1976) *Nathaniel S. Finney, Jay S. Siegel: ''In Memoriam'' – Albert Hofmann (1906–2008). Chimia 62 (2008), 444–447, *Roberts, Andy. ''Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain'' (2008), Marshall Cavendish, U.K, 978-1905736270/1905736274 *Hagenbach, Dieter and Lucius Werthmüller. ''Mystic Chemist: The Life of Albert Hofmann and His Discovery of LSD'' (Synergetic Press, 2013).


External links


Albert Hofmann Foundation''LSD: My Problem Child''
Career Autobiography

A book by Albert Hofmann
Erowid: Albert Hofmann Vault
("Stanislav Grof interviews Dr. Albert Hofmann")

– Daily Telegraph obituary
Watch ''Hofmann's Potion'', a documentary on the origins of LSDAlbert Hofmann's life and articles

LSD Returns—For Psychotherapeutics (Scientific American Magazine article)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hofmann, Albert 1906 births 2008 deaths Swiss chemists People associated with the University of Zurich University of Zurich alumni Psychedelic drug researchers Psychedelic drug advocates Lysergic acid diethylamide Swiss centenarians Men centenarians People from Baden, Switzerland