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Ahmed Sékou Touré (var. Sheku Turay or Ture;
N'Ko N'Ko () is a script devised by Solomana Kante in 1949, as a modern writing system for the Mandé languages of West Africa. The term ''N'Ko'', which means ''I say'' in all Mandé languages, is also used for the Mandé literary standard written ...
: ; January 9, 1922 – March 26, 1984) was a
Guinea Guinea ( ),, fuf, 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫, italic=no, Gine, wo, Gine, nqo, ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫, bm, Gine officially the Republic of Guinea (french: République de Guinée), is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the we ...
n political leader and African statesman who became the first
president of Guinea This article lists the presidents of Guinea, since the country gained independence from France in 1958 (after rejecting to join the French Community in a constitutional referendum). List Key ;''Political parties'' * * * ;''Other factions'' * ...
, serving from 1958 until his death in 1984. Touré was among the primary Guinean nationalists involved in gaining independence of the country from
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
. A devout
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
from the
Mandinka Mandinka, Mandika, Mandinkha, Mandinko, or Mandingo may refer to: Media * ''Mandingo'' (novel), a bestselling novel published in 1957 * ''Mandingo'' (film), a 1975 film based on the eponymous 1957 novel * ''Mandingo (play)'', a play by Jack Kir ...
ethnic group, Sékou Touré was the great grandson of the powerful Mandinka Muslim cleric
Samori Ture Samory Toure ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Muslim cleric, a military strategist, and the founder and leader of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic empire that was in present-day ...
who established an independent Islamic rule in part of West Africa. In 1960, he declared his Democratic Party of Guinea (''Parti démocratique de Guinée'', PDG) the only legal party in the state, and ruled from then on as a virtual dictator. He was re-elected unopposed to four seven-year terms in the absence of any legal opposition. Under his rule many people were killed, including at the notorious
Camp Boiro Camp Boiro or Camp Mamadou Boiro (1960 – 1984) is a defunct Guinean concentration camp within Conakry city. During the regime of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, thousands of political opponents were imprisoned at the camp. It has been estimated th ...
.


Early career

Sékou Touré was born on January 9, 1922, into a
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
family in
Faranah Faranah ( N’ko: ߝߙߊߣߊ߫߫) is a town and sub-prefecture in central Guinea, lying by the River Niger. As of 2014 it had a population of 78,108 people. The town is mainly inhabited by the Malinke people. History Sékou Touré was born i ...
, French Guinea, a
colony In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state' ...
of
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
. Faranah is a town deep inside Guinea situated on the banks of the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
. He was one of seven children born to Alpha Touré and
Aminata Touré Aminata Touré may refer to: * Aminata Touré (Senegalese politician) Aminata Touré (born 12 October 1962) is a Senegalese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Senegal from 1 September 2013 to 4 July 2014. She was the second female ...
, who were subsistence farmers. He was an
aristocratic Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'. At the time of the word' ...
member of the
Mandinka Mandinka, Mandika, Mandinkha, Mandinko, or Mandingo may refer to: Media * ''Mandingo'' (novel), a bestselling novel published in 1957 * ''Mandingo'' (film), a 1975 film based on the eponymous 1957 novel * ''Mandingo (play)'', a play by Jack Kir ...
ethnic group. His great-grandfather was
Samori Ture Samory Toure ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Muslim cleric, a military strategist, and the founder and leader of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic empire that was in present-day ...
(Samory Touré), a noted Muslim
Mandinka Mandinka, Mandika, Mandinkha, Mandinko, or Mandingo may refer to: Media * ''Mandingo'' (novel), a bestselling novel published in 1957 * ''Mandingo'' (film), a 1975 film based on the eponymous 1957 novel * ''Mandingo (play)'', a play by Jack Kir ...
king who founded the
Wassoulou Empire The Wassoulou Empire, sometimes referred to as the Mandinka Empire, was a short-lived (1878–1898) empire of West Africa built from the conquests of Malinke ruler Samori Ture and destroyed by the French colonial army. In 1864, Toucouleu ...
(1861–1890) in the territory of Guinea and Mali, defeating numerous small African states with his large, professionally organized and equipped army. He resisted French colonial rule until his capture in 1898, and died while held in exile in Gabon. Sékou Touré attended the École Coranique (Qur'anic school) in his hometown and later a French lower-primary school in
Kankan Kankan ( Mandingo: Kánkàn; N’ko: ߞߊ߲ߞߊ߲߫) is the largest city in Guinea in land area, and the third largest in population, with a population of 1 980 130 people as of 2020. The city is located in eastern Guinea about east of the ...
. He was enrolled in the Georges Poiret Technical College in Conakry in 1936 but was expelled less than a year later at the age of 15 for leading a student protest against the quality of food and quickly became involved in
labor union A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits (s ...
activity. During his youth, Touré studied the works of
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
and
Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov. ( 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin,. was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1 ...
, among others. In 1940, Touré obtained a clerk's position with the ''Compagnie du Niger Français'' while also working to complete an examination course, which would allow him to join the Post, Telegraph and Telecommunications services (French: ''Postes, télégraphes et téléphones'' ( PTT)). After completing the examination course, he went on to work for the PTT as a postal clerk in Conakry in 1941. During this time, he formed connections with the French General Confederation of Labour, a communist-dominated French labor organization.


Politics and trade unions

Touré first became politically active while working for the PTT. In 1945, he founded the Post and Telecommunications Workers' Union (SPTT; the first trade union in French Guinea), and he became the general secretary of the union in 1946. Also the same year, he was a founding member of the
African Democratic Rally African or Africans may refer to: * Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa: ** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa *** Ethn ...
(French: ''Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, RDA''), an alliance of political parties and affiliates in French West and Equatorial Africa. By 1948, he was elected general secretary of the Territorial Union of the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), and two years later, he was named general secretary of the coordinating committee of the (CGT) for French West Africa and
French Togoland French Togoland (French: '' Togo français'') was a French colonial empires, French colonial League of Nations mandate from 1916 to 1960 in French West Africa. In 1960 it became the independent Togolese Republic, and the present day nation of T ...
. In 1952, he became the leader of the Democratic Party of Guinea (''Parti démocratique de Guinée, PDG''), the RDA's Guinean section. The RDA agitated for the
decolonization of Africa The decolonisation of Africa was a process that took place in the mid-to-late 1950s to 1975 during the Cold War, with radical government changes on the continent as colonial governments made the transition to independent states. The process w ...
, and included representatives from all the French West African colonies. The party forged alliance with labor unions and Touré was elected as secretary-general. His greatest success as a trade union leader was when workers across French Guinea went on a 71-day general strike (longer than any other territories in the
French West Africa French West Africa (french: Afrique-Occidentale française, ) was a federation of eight French colonial territories in West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Ivory Coast, Upper Volta (now B ...
) in 1953 to force the implementation of a new overseas labor code. He was later elected to Guinea's Territorial Assembly the same year. As a result, he was elected as one of the three secretaries-general of the French Communist Party's Confédération Générale du Travail ( General Confederation of Labour; CGT) in 1954. In 1957, he organized the Union Générale des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire, a common trade union centre for French West Africa. He was a leader of the RDA, working closely with
Félix Houphouët-Boigny Félix Houphouët-Boigny (; 18 October 1905 – 7 December 1993), affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux ("The Old One"), was the first president of Ivory Coast, serving from 1960 until his death in 1993. A tribal chief, he wo ...
, who later was elected as president of the
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre i ...
. In 1956, Touré was elected Guinea's deputy to the
French National Assembly The National Assembly (french: link=no, italics=set, Assemblée nationale; ) is the lower house of the bicameral French Parliament under the Fifth Republic, the upper house being the Senate (). The National Assembly's legislators are kn ...
and mayor of
Conakry Conakry (; ; sus, Kɔnakiri; N’ko: ߞߐߣߊߞߙߌ߫, Fula: ''Konaakiri'' 𞤑𞤮𞤲𞤢𞥄𞤳𞤭𞤪𞤭) is the capital and largest city of Guinea. A port city, it serves as the economic, financial and cultural centre of Guinea. Its p ...
, positions he used to criticize the French colonial regime. Touré served for some time as a representative of African groups in
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
, where he worked to negotiate for the independence of France's African colonies. In September 1958, Guinea participated in the referendum on the new
Constitution of France The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic , and it replaced the Constitution of the Fourth Republic of 1946 with the exception of the preamble per a Consti ...
. On acceptance of the new constitution, French overseas territories had the option of choosing to continue their existing status, to move toward full integration into
metropolitan France Metropolitan France (french: France métropolitaine or ''la Métropole''), also known as European France (french: Territoire européen de la France) is the area of France which is geographically in Europe. This collective name for the European ...
, or to acquire the status of an autonomous republic in the new quasi-federal French Community. If, however, they rejected the new constitution, they would become independent forthwith.
French President The president of France, officially the president of the French Republic (french: Président de la République française), is the executive head of state of France, and the commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces. As the presidency is ...
Charles de Gaulle Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (; ; (commonly abbreviated as CDG) 22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Governm ...
made it clear that a country pursuing the independent course would no longer receive French economic and financial aid or retain French technical and administrative officers. In 1958, Touré's PDG, pushed for a "No" in the
French Union The French Union () was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial empire system, colloquially known as the " French Empire" (). It was the formal end of the "indigenous" () status of French subj ...
referendum A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a Representative democr ...
sponsored by the French government. Upon hearing of Touré's choice on the matter, General de Gaulle responded, "Then all you have to do is vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence." The electorate of Guinea rejected the new constitution overwhelmingly, and Guinea accordingly became an independent state on 2 October 1958, with Touré, leader of Guinea's strongest labor union, as president. Guinea was thus the only African colony to vote for immediate independence rather than continued association with France, and hence was the only French colony to decline participation in the new
French Community The French Community (1958–1960; french: Communauté française) was the constitutional organization set up in 1958 between France and its remaining African colonies, then in the process of decolonization. It replaced the French Union, which ...
when it became independent in 1958. In any event, the rest of Francophone Africa gained effective independence two years later in 1960. In response to the vote for immediate and total independence, the vindictive French settlers and colonialists in Guinea were quite dramatic in severing ties with Guinea. ''
The Washington Post ''The Washington Post'' (also known as the ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'') is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C. It is the most widely circulated newspaper within the Washington metropolitan area and has a large n ...
'' observed how brutal the French were in tearing down all what they thought was their contributions to Guinea: "In reaction, and as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them. They unscrewed light bulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans."


President of Guinea

In 1960, Touré declared the PDG to be the only legal party, though the country had effectively been a one-party state since independence. For the next 24 years, Touré effectively held all governing power in the nation. He was elected to a seven-year term as president in 1961; as leader of the PDG he was the only candidate. He was reelected unopposed in 1968, 1974 and 1982. Every five years, a single list of PDG candidates was returned to the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the r ...
. During his presidency, Touré's policies were strongly based on
Marxism Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
, with the nationalization of foreign companies and centralized economic plans. He won the Lenin Peace Prize as a result in 1961. His early actions to reject the French and then to appropriate wealth and farmland from traditional landlords angered many powerful forces, but the increasing failure of his government to provide either economic opportunities or democratic rights angered more. Famously, he stated that "Guinea prefers poverty in freedom to riches in slavery." Guineans who had fled reported that Touré's regime "practices tyranny and torture on a daily basis". His approach towards his opponents caused charges to be brought from
Amnesty International Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says it has more than ten million members and s ...
(as well as other human rights organizations), accusing his rule to be too oppressive. From 1965 to 1975 Touré ended all his government's relations with France, the former colonial power. Touré argued that Africa had lost much during colonization, and that Africa ought to retaliate by cutting off ties to former colonial nations. However, in 1978 Guinea's ties with the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
soured, and, as a sign of reconciliation, President of France
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing Valéry René Marie Georges Giscard d'Estaing (, , ; 2 February 19262 December 2020), also known as Giscard or VGE, was a French politician who served as President of France from 1974 to 1981. After serving as Minister of Finance under prime ...
visited Guinea, the first state visit by a French president. Throughout Touré's dispute with France, he maintained good relations with several socialist countries. However, Touré's attitude toward France was not generally well received by his own people and some other African countries ended diplomatic relations with Guinea over his actions. He also often voiced his distrust of other African nations. Meanwhile, some 1.5 million Guineans were fleeing Guinea to neighboring countries, such as
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone,)]. officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered by Liberia to the southeast and Guinea surrounds the northern half of the nation. Covering a total area of , Sierr ...
. Despite this, Touré's position won the support of many anti-colonialist and
Pan-African Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement exte ...
groups and leaders. Touré's primary allies in the region were presidents
Kwame Nkrumah Kwame Nkrumah (born 21 September 190927 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, having led the Gold Coast to independence from Britain in 1957. An ...
of
Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Tog ...
and
Modibo Keita Modibo or more correctlyMoodibbo in Fula or Fulfulde Orthography is a given name in some Fulɓe or Fulani regions, while in some regions it's used as a form of respect which means a learned scholar. Others are named moodibbo after one's parents or g ...
of
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
. After Nkrumah was overthrown in a 1966 coup, Touré offered him asylum in Guinea and gave him the honorary title of co-president. As a leader of the Pan-Africanist movement, Touré consistently spoke out against colonial powers, and befriended African American civil rights activists such as
Malcolm X Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little, later Malik el-Shabazz; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement. A spokesman for the Nation of I ...
and
Stokely Carmichael Kwame Ture (; born Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael; June 29, 1941November 15, 1998) was a prominent organizer in the civil rights movement in the United States and the global pan-African movement. Born in Trinidad, he grew up in the Unite ...
, to whom he offered asylum. Carmichael took the two leaders' names, as Kwame Ture. With Nkrumah, Touré helped in the formation of the All-African Peoples Revolutionary Party, and aided the
PAIGC The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde ( pt, Partido Africano para a Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde, PAIGC) is a political party in Guinea-Bissau. Originally formed to peacefully campaign for independence from ...
guerrillas in their fight against Portuguese colonialism in neighboring
Portuguese Guinea Portuguese Guinea ( pt, Guiné), called the Overseas Province of Guinea from 1951 until 1972 and then State of Guinea from 1972 until 1974, was a West African colony of Portugal from 1588 until 10 September 1974, when it gained independence as G ...
. The Portuguese launched an attack upon Conakry in 1970 in order to rescue Portuguese
prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of w ...
, overthrow Touré's regime, and destroy PAIGC bases. They succeeded in the rescue but failed to dislodge Touré's regime. His relations with Washington soured, however, after Kennedy's death. When a Guinean delegation was imprisoned in
Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Tog ...
, after the overthrow of Nkrumah, Touré blamed Washington. He feared that the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
, as well as the Soviet Union, were plotting against his own regime even though he was taking economic aid from both parties. During its first three decades of independence, Guinea developed into a militantly socialist state, which merged the functions and membership of the PDG with the various institutions of government, including the public state bureaucracy. This unified party-state had nearly complete control over the country's economic and political life. Guinea expelled the US Peace Corps in 1966 because of their alleged involvement in a plot to overthrow President Touré. Similar charges were directed against France; diplomatic relations were severed in 1965 and Touré did not renew them until 1975. An ongoing source of contention between Guinea and its French-speaking neighbors was the estimated half-million expatriates in Senegal and Ivory Coast; some were active dissidents who, in 1966, formed the National Liberation Front of Guinea (Front de Libération Nationale de Guinée, or FLNG). International tensions erupted again in 1970 when some 350 men, under the leadership of Portuguese officers from Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), including FLNG partisans and African Portuguese soldiers, entered Guinea in order to rescue Portuguese prisoners detained in Conakry and capture Touré. Touré directed waves of arrests, detentions, and some executions of known and suspected opposition leaders in Guinea followed this military operation. In ''Le Français est à nous!'' (''French language belongs to us!''), french university teachers Maria Candéa an Laélia Véron praise Touré for having made official eight local languages of Guinea. They describe his linguistic policy as "très ambitieuse (very ambitous)". Between 1969 and 1976, according to Amnesty International, 4,000 persons in Guinea were detained for political reasons, with the fate of 2,900 unknown. After an alleged
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
plot to assassinate Touré was disclosed in May 1976,
Diallo Telli Boubacar Diallo Telli (1925 – February 1977) was a Guinean diplomat and politician. He helped found the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and was the second secretary-general of the OAU between 1964 and 1972. After serving as Minister of Jus ...
, a cabinet minister and formerly the first secretary-general of the
OAU The Organisation of African Unity (OAU; french: Organisation de l'unité africaine, OUA) was an intergovernmental organization established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with 32 signatory governments. One of the main heads for OAU's ...
, was arrested and sent to prison. He died without trial in November of that year. In 1977, protests against the regime's economic policy, which dealt harshly with unauthorized trading, led to riots in which three regional governors were killed. Touré responded by relaxing restrictions on trading, offering amnesty to exiles (thousands of whom returned), and releasing hundreds of political prisoners. Relations with the Soviet bloc grew cooler, as Touré sought to increase Western aid and private investment for Guinea's sagging economy. He imprisoned or exiled his strongest opposition leaders. It is estimated that 50,000 people were killed under his regime. Over time, Touré arrested large numbers of suspected political opponents and imprisoned them in
concentration camp Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects". Thus, while it can simpl ...
s, such as the notorious
Camp Boiro Camp Boiro or Camp Mamadou Boiro (1960 – 1984) is a defunct Guinean concentration camp within Conakry city. During the regime of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, thousands of political opponents were imprisoned at the camp. It has been estimated th ...
. As a result of mass graves found in 2002, some 50,000 people are believed to have been killed under the regime of Touré. Domestically, Sékou Touré pursued socialist economic policies, including
nationalization Nationalization (nationalisation in British English) is the process of transforming privately-owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state. Nationalization usually refers to p ...
s of banks, energy and transportation; in foreign affairs, he joined the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 120 countries that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states worldwide. The movement originated in the aftermath ...
and developed very close relations with
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also Romanization of Chinese, romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the List of national founde ...
and the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
. Once Guinea began its
rapprochement In international relations, a rapprochement, which comes from the French word ''rapprocher'' ("to bring together"), is a re-establishment of cordial relations between two countries. This may be done due to a mutual enemy, as was the case with Germ ...
with France in the late 1970s,
Marxists Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict and a dialectical ...
among Touré's supporters began to oppose his government's shift toward
capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...
liberalisation Liberalization or liberalisation (British English) is a broad term that refers to the practice of making laws, systems, or opinions less severe, usually in the sense of eliminating certain government regulations or restrictions. The term is used m ...
. In 1978, Touré formally renounced Marxism and reestablished trade with the West. Single-list elections for an expanded National Assembly were held in 1980. Touré was elected unopposed to a fourth seven-year term as president on 9 May 1982. A new constitution was adopted that month, and during the summer Touré visited the United States. While in Washington, Touré urged for more American private investment in Guinea, and claimed that the country had "fabulous economic potential" due to its mineral reserves. This was taken by US diplomats to be a confession of the failure of Marxism. It was part of his economic policy change that led him to seek Western investment in order to develop Guinea's huge mineral reserves. At the same time, however, the annual average income of Guineans was US$140 (), life expectancy was only at 41 years, and the literacy rate was only 10%. Measures announced in 1983 brought further economic liberalization, including the delegation of produce marketing to private traders.


Death

Touré died of an apparent heart attack on 26 March 1984 while undergoing cardiac treatment at the
Cleveland Clinic Cleveland Clinic is a nonprofit American academic medical center based in Cleveland, Ohio. Owned and operated by the Cleveland Clinic Foundation, an Ohio nonprofit corporation established in 1921, it runs a 170-acre (69 ha) campus in Cleveland, ...
in
Cleveland, Ohio Cleveland ( ), officially the City of Cleveland, is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County. Located in the northeastern part of the state, it is situated along the southern shore of Lake Erie, across the U.S ...
, for emergency heart surgery; he had been rushed to the United States after being stricken in
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the Ara ...
the previous day. Touré's tomb is at the Camayanne Mausoleum, situated within the gardens of the
Conakry Grand Mosque The Conakry Grand Mosque (french: Grande mosquée de Conakry / Mosquée Fayçal) is a mosque in Conakry, Guinea, located east of the Conakry Botanical Garden and beside the Donka Hospital. The mosque was built under Ahmed Sékou Touré wit ...
. Prime Minister
Louis Lansana Béavogui Louis Lansana Beavogui ( nqo, ߟߊ߲߭ߛߌ߬ߣߍ߬ ߓߌߦߊߝ߭ߏߜ߭ߌ߫; 28 December 1923 – 19 August 1984) was a Guinean politician. He was Prime Minister from 1972 to 1984 and was briefly interim President in 1984. Background and pol ...
became acting president, pending elections that were to be held within 45 days. The Political Bureau of the ruling Guinea Democratic Party was due to name its choice as Touré's successor on 3 April 1984. Under the constitution, the PDG's new leader would have been automatically elected to a seven-year term as president and confirmed in office by the voters by the end of spring. Just hours before that meeting took place, the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
seized power in a ''coup d'état''. They denounced the last years of Touré's rule as a "bloody and ruthless dictatorship." The constitution was suspended, the National Assembly dissolved, and the PDG abolished. Colonel
Lansana Conté Lansana Conté (30 November 1934 – 22 December 2008
, leader of the coup, assumed the presidency on 5 April, heading the
Military Committee of National Restoration The Military Committee of National Restoration (french: Comité militaire de redressement national, CMRN) was the ruling junta of Guinea which seized power in a coup d'état on 3 April 1984, following the death of President Ahmed Sékou Touré on 2 ...
(''Comité Militaire de Redressement National''—CMRN). The military group freed about 1,000 political prisoners. In 1985 Conté took advantage of an alleged coup attempt to arrest and execute several of Sékou Touré's close associates, including Ismael Touré,
Mamadi Keïta Mamadi Keïta (1933 – July 1985) was a leading Guinea Guinea ( ),, fuf, 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫, italic=no, Gine, wo, Gine, nqo, ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫, bm, Gine officially the Republic of Guinea (french: République de Guinée), is a coastal coun ...
,
Siaka Touré Siaka Touré (1935–1985) was the commandant of Camp Boiro in Conakry, Guinea during the regime of Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré. During this period, many of the president's political opponents died in the camp. Biography Siaka Touré ...
, former commander of
Camp Boiro Camp Boiro or Camp Mamadou Boiro (1960 – 1984) is a defunct Guinean concentration camp within Conakry city. During the regime of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, thousands of political opponents were imprisoned at the camp. It has been estimated th ...
; and
Moussa Diakité Moussa Diakité (1927 – 4 July 1985) was a Guinean politician during the presidency of Ahmed Sékou Touré. He was a member of the national Politburo. His wife, Tata Keïta, was half sister of the President's wife Andrée, and his son married t ...
.


Desecration of Touré's tomb

On July 14, 2020, his grave was desecrated by an unknown person. According to a relative of the CEO of the GDR who went to the scene of the desecration, the individual set fire to the tricolor which was in the grave. Then he began to pour liquid into the burial place of the first historical leader of the country. The next day his widow lamented the act of desecration. She herself clarified that the mausoleum belongs to her clan and that it is abandoned without security, she considered hiring security personnel.


Foreign awards and honours

* ** Collar of the
Order of the White Lion The Order of the White Lion ( cs, Řád Bílého lva) is the highest order of the Czech Republic. It continues a Czechoslovak order of the same name created in 1922 as an award for foreigners (Czechoslovakia had no civilian decoration for its ...
(1959) * ** Grand Cross of the
Legion of Honour The National Order of the Legion of Honour (french: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur), formerly the Royal Order of the Legion of Honour ('), is the highest French order of merit, both military and civil. Established in 1802 by Napoleo ...
* ** Supreme Commander of the
Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo The Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo is a South African honour. It was instituted on 6 December 2002, and is granted by the President of South Africa to foreign citizens who have promoted South African interests and aspirations through co ...
(2004) * ** Lenin Peace Prize (1961) * ** Collar of the
Order of Civil Merit The Order of Civil Merit ( es, Orden del Mérito Civil) was established by King Alfonso XIII of Spain in 1926. The order recognizes "the civic virtue of officers in the service of the Nation, as well as extraordinary service by Spanish and forei ...
(1979) * ** Grand Cross of the
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany The Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (german: Verdienstorden der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, or , BVO) is the only federal decoration of Germany. It is awarded for special achievements in political, economic, cultural, intellect ...
(1959)


Works by Touré (partial)

* Ahmed Sékou Touré. ''8 novembre 1964'' (Conakry) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, (1965) * ''A propos du Sahara Occidental : intervention du président Ahmed Sékou Touré devant le 17e sommet de l'OUA, Freetown, le 3 juillet 1980''. (S.l. : s.n., 1980) * Address of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of the Republic of Guinee (sic) : suggestions submitted during the West Africa consultative regional meeting held at Conakry, during 19 and 20 November 1971. (Cairo : Permanent Secretariat of the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 1971) * ''Afrika and imperialism''. Newark, N.J. : Jihad Pub. Co., 1973. * ''Conférences, discours et rapports,'' Conakry : Impr. du Gouvernement, (1958–) * Congres général de l'U.G.T.A.N. (Union général des travailleurs de l'Afrique noire) : Conakry, 15–18 janvier 1959 : rapport d'orientation et de doctrine. (Paris) :
Présence africaine ''Présence Africaine'' is a pan-African quarterly cultural, political, and literary magazine, published in Paris, France, and founded by Alioune Diop in 1947. In 1949, ''Présence Africaine'' expanded to include a publishing house and a bookstore ...
, c1959. * Discours de Monsieur Sékou Touré, Président du Conseil de Gouvernement des 28 juillet et 25 aout 1958, de Monsieur Diallo Saifoulaye, Président de l'Assemblée territoriale et du Général de Gaulle, Président du Gouvernement de la Républ (Conakry) : Guinée Française, (1958) * Doctrine and methods of the Democratic Party of Guinea (Conakry 1963). * Expérience guinéenne et unité africaine. Paris, Présence africaine (1959) * ''Guinée-Festival / commentaire et montage, Wolibo Dukuré dit Grand-pére''. Conakry : Commission Culturelle du Comité Central, 1983. * ''Guinée, prélude à l'indépendance (Avant-propos de Jacques Rabemananjara)'' Paris, Présence africaine (1958) * ''Hommage à la révolution Cubaine ; Message du camarade Ahmed Sekou Toure au peuple Cubain à l'occasion du 20e anniversaire de l'attaque de la Caserne de Moncada (Juillet 1973)''. Conakry : Bureau de Presse de la Presidence de la Republique, (1975). * Ahmed Sékou Touré. International policy and diplomatic action of the Democratic Party of Guinea; extracts from the report on doctrine and orientation submitted to the 3d National Conference of the P.D.G. (Cairo, Société Orientale de Publicité-Press, 1962) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Opening speech of the Summit of Heads of State and Government by President Ahmed Sékou Touré, chairman of the Summit (November 20, 1980). (S.l. : s.n., 1980) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Poèmes militants. (Conakry, Guinea) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1964 * Ahmed Sékou Touré. Political leader considered as the representative of a culture. (Newark, N. J. : Jihad Productions, 19--) * Ahmed Sékou Touré. ''Pour l'amitié algéro-guinéenne''. (Conakry, Guinea : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1972) * ''Rapport de doctrine et de politique générale'', Conakry : Imprimerie Nationale, 1959. * ''Strategy and tactics of the revolution'', Conakry, Guinea : Press Office, 1978. * ''Unité nationale'', Conakry, République de Guinée (B.P. 1005, Conakry, République de Guinée) : Bureau de presse de la Présidence de la République, 1977.


See also

*
Politics of Guinea Politics of Guinea takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Guinea is both head of state and head of government of Guinea. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legi ...
* 1963 visit by Sékou Touré to the Republic of the Congo * Palais présidentiel Sekhoutoureah


References


Citations


Sources

* Henry Louis Gates, Anthony Appiah (eds). ''Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African'', "Ahmed Sékou Touré," pp. 1857–58. Basic Civitas Books (1999). * * Molefi K. Asante, Ama Mazama. ''Encyclopedia of Black Studies''. Sage Publications (2005) * Ibrahima Baba Kake. ''Sékou Touré. Le Héros et le Tyran''. Paris, 1987, JA Presses. Collection Jeune Afrique Livres. 254 p * Lansiné Kaba. "From Colonialism to Autocracy: Guinea under Sékou Touré, 1957–1984;" in ''Decolonization and African Independence, the Transfers of Power, 1960–1980''. Prosser Gifford and William Roger Louis (eds). New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. * Phineas Malinga
"Ahmed Sékou Touré: An African Tragedy"
* Baruch Hirson
"The Misdirection of C.L.R. James"
''Communalism and Socialism in Africa,'' 1989. * John Leslie

''
International Socialism Proletarian internationalism, sometimes referred to as international socialism, is the perception of all communist revolutions as being part of a single global class struggle rather than separate localized events. It is based on the theory that ...
'' (1st series), No.1, Spring 1960, pp. 15–19. * Alpha Mohamed Sow, "Conflits ethnique dans un État révolutionnaire (Le cas Guinéen)", in ''Les ethnies ont une histoire,'' Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Gérard Prunier (ed), pp. 386–405, Karthala Editions (2003) * Parts of this article were translated from French Wikipedia's :fr:Ahmed Sékou Touré. ; News articles * "New West Africa Union Sealed By Heads of Ghana and Guinea" By Thomas F. Brady, ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
''. May 2, 1959, p. 2 * Guinea Shuns Tie to World Blocs; But New State Gets Most Aid From East—Toure Departs for a Visit to the U. S. By John B. Oakes, ''The New York Times,'' October 25, 1959, p. 16, * Red Aid to Guinea Rises By Homer Bigart, ''The New York Times''. March 6, 1960, p. 4 * Henry Tanner. Regime in Guinea Seizes 2 Utilities; Toure Nationalizes Power and Water Supply Concerns—Pledges Compensation, ''The New York Times''. February 2, 1961, Thursday, p. 3 * Toure Says Reds Plotted a Coup; Links Communists to Riots by Students Last Month. (UPI), ''The New York Times''. December 13, 1961, Wednesday, p. 14 * Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate'; Gui'nea embodies the emphatic nationalism and revolutionary hopes of ex-colonial Africa, but its energetic President confronts handicaps that are also typically African. Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate' By
David Halberstam David Halberstam (April 10, 1934 April 23, 2007) was an American writer, journalist, and historian, known for his work on the Vietnam War, politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, Korean War, and late ...
, July 8, 1962, Sunday ''
The New York Times Magazine ''The New York Times Magazine'' is an American Sunday magazine supplement included with the Sunday edition of ''The New York Times''. It features articles longer than those typically in the newspaper and has attracted many notable contributors. ...
'', p. 146 * Guinea Relaxes Business Curbs; Turns to Free Enterprise to Rescue Economy. (Reuters), ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1963, Sunday p. 24 * U.S. Peace Corps Ousted by Guinea; 72 Members and Dependents to Leave Within a Week By Richard Eder, ''The New York Times'', November 9, 1966, Wednesday, p. 11 * Guinea Is Warming West African Ties, ''The New York Times'', January 26, 1968, Friday, p. 52 * Alfred Friendly Jr. Toure Adopting a Moderate Tone; But West Africa Is Skeptical of Guinean's Words. ''The New York Times''. April 28, 1968, Sunday, p. 13 * Ebb of African 'Revolution', ''The New York Times'', December 7, 1968, Saturday p. 46 * Guinea's President Charges A Plot to Overthrow Him, (Agence France-Presse), ''The New York Times'', January 16, 1969, Thursday p. 10 * Guinea Reports 2 Members Of Cabinet Seized in Plot, (Reuters), ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1969, Saturday p. 14 * 12 Foes of Regime Doomed in Guinea, ''The New York Times'', May 16, 1969, Friday p. 2 * Guinea Reports Invasion From Sea by Portuguese; Lisbon Denies Charge U.N. Council Calls for End to Attack Guinea Reports an Invasion From Sea (Associated Press), ''The New York Times'', November 23, 1970, Monday, p. 1 * Guinea: Attack Strengthens Country's Symbolic Role, ''The New York Times'', November 29, 1970, Sunday, p. 194 * Guinean is Adamant On Death Sentences, ''The New York Times'', January 29, 1971, Friday. p. 3 * Guinea Wooing the West In Bauxite Development; Guinea is Seeking Help On Bauxite, ''The New York Times'', February 15, 1971, Monday Section: Business and Finance, p. 34 * Political Ferment Hurts Guinea, ''The New York Times'', January 31, 1972, Monday Section: Survey of Africa's Economy, p. 46 * Guinean, in Total Reversal, Asks More U.S. Investment by Bernard Weinraub, ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'', July 2, 1982, Friday Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 5 * Guinea is Slowly Breaking Out of Its Tight Cocoon by Alan Cowell, ''The New York Times'', December 3, 1982, Friday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3 * In Revolutionary Guinea, Some of the Fire is Gone by Alan Cowell, ''The New York Times'', December 9, 1982, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3 * Guinea's President, Sekou Toure, Dies in Cleveland Clinic by Clifford D. May, ''The New York Times'', Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A1, Col. 1 * Thousands Mourn Death of Toure by Clifford D. May, ''The New York Times'', March 29, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 1
Ahmed Sekou Toure, a Radical Hero
by Eric Pace, ''The New York Times'', Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A6, Col. 1 * In Post-Coup Guinea, a Jail is Thrown Open. Clifford D. May. ''The New York Times'', April 12, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p.A1, Col. 4

''The New York Times'', March 29, 1984. * ttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/07/world/guinea-airport-opens-capital-appears-calm.html?sq=Sekou+Toure&scp=88&st=nyt Guinea Airport Opens; Capital Appears Calm ''The New York Times'', April 7, 1984.
Guinea Frees Toure's Widow
(Reuters), ''The New York Times'', January 3, 1988.

Howard W. French, ''The New York Times'', February 28, 1995.

Karen DeWitt Karen DeWitt (born April 18, 1944) is an American journalist and communications executive. She worked for the ''New York Post'', ''National Journal'', ''The Washington Post, The New York Times'', ''USA Today'', and the ''Washington Examiner'', an ...
, ''The New York Times'', April 14, 1996.

Michael T. Kaufman, ''The New York Times'', November 16, 1998.
'Mass graves' found in Guinea
BBC, 22 October 2002.

(Book Review), Robert Weisbrot, ''The New York Times Review of Books'', November 23, 2003. ; Other
secondary source In scholarship, a secondary sourcePrimary, secondary and tertiary sources
. ...
s * Graeme Counsel
"Popular music and politics in Sékou Touré's Guinea". ''Australasian Review of African Studies''. 26 (1), pp. 26–42. 2004
*
Jean-Paul Alata Jean-Paul Alata (17 August 1924 – September 1978) was a Frenchman who was a political prisoner in Camp Boiro, Guinea from January 1971 to July 1975, later writing a book about his experience which was banned by the French government. Early care ...

Prison d'Afrique
* Jean-Paul Alata

* Herve Hamon, Patrick Rotma

* Ladipo Adamolekun. "Sekou Toure's Guinea: An Experiment in Nation Building". Methuen (August 1976). * Koumandian Kéita

Nubia (1984). * Ibrahima Baba Kaké

Jeune Afrique ''Jeune Afrique'' (English: ''Young Africa'') is a French-language pan-African weekly news magazine, founded in 1960 in Tunis and subsequently published in Paris. It is the most widely read pan-African magazine. It is also a book publisher, under ...
, Paris (1987) * Alpha Abdoulaye Diallo
La vérité du ministre: Dix ans dans les geôles de Sékou Touré.
(Questions d'actualité), Calmann-Lévy, Paris (1985). * Kaba Camara 41

* Kindo Touré

* Adolf Marx

* Ousmane Ardo Bâ

Harmattan The Harmattan is a season in West Africa that occurs between the end of November and the middle of March. It is characterized by the dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind, of the same name, which blows from the Sahara over West Africa into the ...
, Paris (1986) * Mahmoud Bah
Construire la Guinée après Sékou Touré
* Mgr. Raymond-Marie Tchidimbo

* Amadou Diallo. ttps://web.archive.org/web/20141026032110/http://www.campboiro.org/bibliotheque/amadou_diallo/mort_telli_diallo/tdm.html La mort de Telli Diallo* Almamy Fodé Sylla
L'Itinéraire sanglant
* Comité Telli Diallo

* Alsény René Gomez

* Sako Kondé

* André Lewin

*
Camara Laye Camara Laye (January 1, 1928 – February 4, 1980) was a writer from Guinea. He was the author of ''The African Child'' (''L'Enfant noir''), a novel based loosely on his own childhood, and ''The Radiance of the King'' (''Le Regard du roi'') ...

Dramouss
* Dr. Thierno Bah

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari

* Nadine Bari. Guinée. Les cailloux de la mémoire (2004) * Maurice Jeanjean. Nadine Bari

* Collectif Jeune Afrique

* Claude Abou Diakité. La Guinée enchaînée * Alpha Condé. Guinée, néo-colonie américaine ou Albanie d'Afrique * Lansiné Kaba. From colonialism to autocracy. Guinea under Sékou Touré: 1957–1984 * Charles E. Sory. Sékou Touré, l'ange exterminateur * Charles Diané. Sékou Touré, l'homme et son régime : lettre ouverte au président Mitterrand * Emile Tompapa. Sékou Touré : quarante ans de dictature * Alpha Ousmane Barry. Pouvoir du discours et discours du pouvoir : l'art oratoire chez Sékou Touré de 1958 à 1984


External links





Publishes full text of books and articles as well photos of Sekou Toure
Camp Boiro Memorial
Extensive list of reports and articles on the notorious political prison where thousands of victims of the dictatorship of Sekou Toure disappeared between 1960 and 1984.
More information about Ahmed Sékou Touré (French)

BBC Radio: President Sekou Toure Defends One-Party Rule
(1959).
Conflict history: Guinea
11 May 2007.
International Crisis Group The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a transnational non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, performing research and analysis on global ...
.
1st page on the French National Assembly website

2nd page on the French National Assembly website
{{DEFAULTSORT:Toure, Ahmed Sekou 1922 births 1984 deaths Burials in Guinea Collars of the Order of the White Lion Democratic Party of Guinea – African Democratic Rally politicians Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Guinean Muslims Guinean pan-Africanists Lenin Peace Prize recipients Mandinka Muslim socialists People of French West Africa People from Faranah Presidents of Guinea Rassemblement Démocratique Africain politicians Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo Socialist rulers