Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿAbbās ibn Rāšid ibn Ḥammād, ( ar, أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن راشد بن حماد; ) commonly known as Ahmad ibn Fadlan, was a 10th-century
Muslim traveler, famous for his account of his travels as a member of an embassy of the
Abbasid caliph,
al-Muqtadir of
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon. I ...
, to the king of the
Volga Bulgars, known as his ("account" or "journal").
His account is most notable for providing a detailed description of the
Volga Vikings, including eyewitness accounts of life as part of a trade caravan and witnessing a
ship burial
A ship burial or boat grave is a burial in which a ship or boat is used either as the tomb for the dead and the grave goods, or as a part of the grave goods itself. If the ship is very small, it is called a boat grave. This style of burial was p ...
. He also notably described the lifestyle of the Oghuz turks while the Khazaria, Cumans, and Pechnegs were still around.
Ibn Fadlan's detailed writings have been cited by numerous historians. They have also inspired entertainment works, including Michael Crichton's novel ''
Eaters of the Dead'' and its film adaptation ''
The 13th Warrior
''The 13th Warrior'' is a 1999 American historical fiction action film based on Michael Crichton's 1976 novel ''Eaters of the Dead'', which is a loose adaptation of the tale of ''Beowulf'' combined with Ahmad ibn Fadlan's historical account of the ...
''.
Biography
Background
Ahmad ibn Fadlan was described as an
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
in contemporaneous sources. However, the ''
Encyclopedia of Islam
The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is an encyclopaedia of the academic discipline of Islamic studies published by Brill. It is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. The first edition was published i ...
'' and
Richard N. Frye add that nothing can be said with certainty about his origin, his ethnicity, his education, or even the dates of his birth and death.
Primary source documents and historical texts show that Ahmad Ibn Fadlan was a ''
faqih'', an expert in
Islamic jurisprudence and faith, in the court of the
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
Caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
al-Muqtadir. It appears certain from his writing that prior to his departure on his historic mission, he had already been serving for some time in the court of al-Muqtadir. Other than the fact that he was both a traveler and a
theologian
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
in service of the Abbasid Caliphate, little is known about Ahmad Ibn Fadlan prior to 921 and his self-reported travels.
The embassy
Ibn Fadlan was sent from
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon. I ...
in 921 to serve as the secretary to an ambassador from the
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
Caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
al-Muqtadir to the
iltäbär (vassal-king under the
Khazars
The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
) of the
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria, was a historic Bulgar state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state wi ...
,
Almış.
On 21 June 921 (11 ''safar'' AH 309), a diplomatic party led by Susan al-Rassi, a eunuch in the caliph's court, left Baghdad. Primarily, the purpose of their mission was to explain
Islamic law
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
to the recently converted Bulgar peoples living on the eastern bank of the Volga River in what is now
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
. Additionally, the embassy was sent in response to a request by the king of the Volga Bulgars to help them against their enemies, the
Khazars
The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
. Ibn Fadlan served as the group's religious advisor and lead counselor for Islamic religious doctrine and law.
Ahmad Ibn Fadlan and the diplomatic party utilized established caravan routes toward
Bukhara, now part of
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan (, ; uz, Ozbekiston, italic=yes / , ; russian: Узбекистан), officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( uz, Ozbekiston Respublikasi, italic=yes / ; russian: Республика Узбекистан), is a doubly landlocked co ...
, but instead of following that route all the way to the east, they turned northward in what is now northeastern Iran. Leaving the city of
Gurgan
Gorgan ( fa, گرگان ; also romanized as ''Gorgān'', ''Gurgān'', and ''Gurgan''), formerly Esterabad ( ; also romanized as ''Astarābād'', ''Asterabad'', and ''Esterābād''), is the capital city of Golestan Province, Iran. It lies appro ...
near the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia ...
, they crossed lands belonging to a variety of Turkic peoples, notably the
Khazar Khaganate
The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
,
Oghuz Turks on the east coast of the Caspian, the
Pechenegs
The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა� ...
on the
Ural River
The Ural (russian: Урал, ), known before 1775 as Yaik (russian: Яик, ba, Яйыҡ, translit=Yayıq, ; kk, Жайық, translit=Jaiyq, ), is a river flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan in the continental border between Europe and Asia ...
and the
Bashkirs
, native_name_lang = bak
, flag = File:Bashkirs of Baymak rayon.jpg
, flag_caption = Bashkirs of Baymak in traditional dress
, image =
, caption =
, population = approx. 2 million
, popplace ...
in what is now central Russia, but the largest portion of his account is dedicated to the
Rus, i.e. the
Varangians (Vikings) on the
Volga trade route
In the Middle Ages, the Volga trade route connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea and the Sasanian Empire, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the ...
. All told, the delegation covered some 4000 kilometers (2500 mi).
Ibn Fadlan's envoy reached the Volga Bulgar capital on 12 May 922 (12 ''muharram'' AH 310).
When they arrived, Ibn Fadlan read aloud a letter from the caliph to the Bulgar
Khan and presented him with gifts from the caliphate. At the meeting with the Bulgar ruler, Ibn Fadlan delivered the caliph's letter, but was criticized for not bringing with him the promised money from the caliph to build a fortress as defense against enemies of the Bulgars.
Ethnographic writing
Manuscript tradition
For a long time, only an incomplete version of the account was known, transmitted as quotations in the geographical dictionary of
Yāqūt (under the headings
Atil
Atil (also Itil) , was the capital of the Khazar Khaganate from the middle of the 8th century until the end of the 10th century.
Known to have been situated on the Silk Road in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, its precise location has long bee ...
,
Bashgird,
Bulghār,
Khazar
The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
,
Khwārizm,
Rūs), published in 1823 by
Christian Martin Frähn
Christian Martin Joachim (von) Frähn (4 June 1782 – 16 August 1851), German and Russian numismatist and historian, was born at Rostock, Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Frähn began his Oriental studies under Tychsen at the university of Rostock, a ...
.
Only in 1923 was a manuscript discovered by
Zeki Velidi Togan
Zeki Velidi Togan ( ba, Әхмәтзәки Әхмәтшаһ улы Вәлиди, Äxmätzäki Äxmätşah ulı Wälidi; russian: Ахмет-Заки Ахметшахович Валидов, tr, Ahmet Zeki Velidi Togan; 1890 – 1970 in Istanbul), ...
in the
Astane Quds Museum,
Mashhad,
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
. The manuscript,
Razawi Library MS 5229, dates from the 13th century (7th century
Hijra
Hijra, Hijrah, Hegira, Hejira, Hijrat or Hijri may refer to:
Islam
* Hijrah (often written as ''Hejira'' in older texts), the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE
* Migration to Abyssinia or First Hegira, of Muhammad's followers ...
) and consists of 420 pages (210 folia). Besides other geographical treatises, it contains a fuller version of Ibn Fadlan's text (pp. 390–420). Additional passages not preserved in MS 5229 are quoted in the work of the 16th century
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
geographer
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" a ...
Amīn Rāzī Amin Razi also known as ''Omid'') was a Safavid-era (16th to 17th century) Persian geographer, author of a geographical and biographical encyclopedia ('' tadhkirah'') called ''Haft iqlīm'' ( "seven climes") based on the system of seven climes ...
called ''Haft Iqlīm'' ("Seven
Clime
The climes (singular ''clime''; also ''clima'', plural ''climata'', from Greek κλίμα ''klima'', plural κλίματα ''klimata'', meaning "inclination" or "slope") in classical Greco-Roman geography and astronomy were the divisions of ...
s").
Neither source seems to record Ibn Fadlān's complete report. Yāqūt offers excerpts, and several times claims that Ibn Fadlān also recounted his return to Bagdad, but does not quote such material. Meanwhile, the text in Razawi Library MS 5229 breaks off part way through describing the Khazars.
Account of the Volga Bulgars
One noteworthy aspect of the Volga Bulgars that Ibn Fadlan focused on was their religion and the institution of
Islam in these territories. The Bulgar king had invited religious instruction as a gesture of homage to the Abbasids in exchange for financial and military support, and Ibn Fadlan's mission as a ''faqih'' was one of proselytization as well as diplomacy.
For example, Ibn Fadlan details in his encounter that the Volga Bulgar Khan commits an error in his prayer exhortations by repeating the prayer twice. One scholar calls it an "illuminating episode" in the text where Ibn Fadlan expresses his great anger and disgust over the fact that the Khan and the Volga Bulgars in general are practicing some form of imperfect and doctrinally unsound Islam. In general, Ibn Fadlan recognized and judged the peoples of central
Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago ...
he encountered by the possession and practice of Islam, along with their efforts put forth to utilize, implement, and foster Islamic faith and social practice in their respective society. Consequently, many of the peoples and societies to Ibn Fadlan were "like asses gone astray. They have no religious bonds with God, nor do they have recourse to reason".
Account of the Rus'
A substantial portion of Ibn Fadlan's account is dedicated to the description of a people he called the ''
Rūs'' (روس) or ''Rūsiyyah''. Though the identification of the people Ibn Fadlān describes is uncertain, they are generally assumed to be
Volga Vikings; the traders were likely of Scandinavian origin while their crews also included Finns, Slavs, and others. The Rūs appear as traders who set up shop on the river banks nearby the Bolğar camp. They are described as having bodies tall as (date) palm-trees, with blond hair and ruddy skin. Each is
tattoo
A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, and/or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several tattooing ...
ed from "the tips of his toes to his neck" with dark blue or dark green "designs" and all men are armed with an axe, sword and long knife.
Ibn Fadlan describes the Rus as "perfect" physical specimens and the hygiene of the ''Rūsiyyah'' as disgusting and shameless, especially regarding to sex (which they perform openly even in groups), and considers them vulgar and unsophisticated. In that, his account contrasts with that of the Persian traveler
Ibn Rustah
Ahmad ibn Rustah Isfahani ( fa, احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی ''Aḥmad ibn Rusta Iṣfahānī''), more commonly known as Ibn Rustah (, also spelled ''Ibn Rusta'' and ''Ibn Ruste''), was a tenth-century Persian explorer and geographer ...
, whose impressions of the Rus were more favourable, although it has been attributed to a possibly intentional mistranslation with the original texts being more in line with Ibn Fadlan's narrative. He also describes in great detail
the funeral of one of their chieftains (a
ship burial
A ship burial or boat grave is a burial in which a ship or boat is used either as the tomb for the dead and the grave goods, or as a part of the grave goods itself. If the ship is very small, it is called a boat grave. This style of burial was p ...
involving
human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein ...
). Some scholars believe that it took place in the modern
Balymer complex
The Balymer complex is an archaeological complex near the village of Balymer (Балымер), Spassky District, Tatarstan, Russian Federation.
The former trade emporium on the Volga trade route covers an area of 4 km2. It was first explored ...
.
[Сибирский курьер. Тайны древнего кургана]
/ref>
Editions and translations
(In chronological order)
*
* [from Razawi Library MS 5229]
* [Includes photographic reproduction of Razawi Library MS 5229.]
*
*
*
* [French translation, including additions to the text of Razawi Library MS 5229 from Yāqūt's quotations.]
*
*
*
* [Translates the section on the ''Rūsiyyah''.]
*
*
*
* Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān, ''Mission to the Volga'', trans. by James E. Montgomery (New York: New York University Press, 2017),
Appearances in popular culture
Ibn Fadlān is a major character in Michael Crichton's 1976 novel '' Eaters of the Dead'', which draws heavily on Ibn Fadlān's writings in its opening passages. In the 1999 film adaptation of the novel, ''The 13th Warrior
''The 13th Warrior'' is a 1999 American historical fiction action film based on Michael Crichton's 1976 novel ''Eaters of the Dead'', which is a loose adaptation of the tale of ''Beowulf'' combined with Ahmad ibn Fadlan's historical account of the ...
'', Ibn Fadlān is played by Antonio Banderas.
Ibn Fadlān's journey is also the subject of the 2007 Syrian TV series '' Saqf al-Alam''.
Samirah "Sam" al-Abbas, a main character from '' Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard'', as well as her betrothed, Amir Fadlan, are said to be descendants of Ahmad ibn Fadlan.
See also
* Nabidh
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fadlan, Ahmad ibn
9th-century Arabs
9th-century businesspeople
10th-century Arabs
10th-century businesspeople
10th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
10th-century travelers
10th-century writers
870s births
960 deaths
Arab explorers
Date of birth unknown
Date of death unknown
Explorers of Asia
Geographers from the Abbasid Caliphate
Travel writers of the medieval Islamic world
Writers from Baghdad
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
Foreign relations of the Abbasid Caliphate