Agnes Arber
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Agnes Robertson Arber FRS (23 February 1879 – 22 March 1960) was a British plant morphologist and
anatomist Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having it ...
, historian of botany and
philosopher of biology The philosophy of biology is a subfield of philosophy of science, which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have ...
. She was born in London but lived most of her life in
Cambridge Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town in Cambridgeshire, England. It is located on the River Cam approximately north of London. As of the 2021 United Kingdom census, the population of Cambridge was 145,700. Cambridge bec ...
, including the last 51 years of her life. She was the first woman botanist to be elected as a
Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the judges of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathemati ...
(21 March 1946, at the age of 67) and the third woman overall. She was the first woman to receive the
Gold Medal A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture. Since the eighteenth century, gold medals have be ...
of the
Linnean Society of London The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature coll ...
(24 May 1948, at the age of 69) for her contributions to botanical science. Her scientific research focused on the
monocotyledon Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, ( Lilianae '' sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one ...
group of flowering plants. She also contributed to development of morphological studies in botany during the early part of the 20th century. Her later work concentrated on the topic of philosophy in botany, particularly on the nature of biological research.


Biography

Agnes Arber was born on 23 February 1879 in London. She was the first child of Henry Robert Robertson, an artist, and Agnes Lucy Turner and had three younger siblings,
Donald Struan Robertson Donald Struan Robertson, FBA (28 June 1885 – 5 October 1961) was a classical scholar, particularly noted for his work on Apuleius, and for 22 years the Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Cambridge. Life Robertson was born in Lond ...
(who later became Regius Professor of Greek in the
University of Cambridge , mottoeng = Literal: From here, light and sacred draughts. Non literal: From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge. , established = , other_name = The Chancellor, Masters and Schola ...
), Janet Robertson, who later became a portrait painter, and Margaret Robertson (married name Hills), who was a notable suffragist and local politician. Her father gave her regular drawing lessons during her early childhood, which later provided her with the necessary skills to illustrate her scientific publications herself.Hanshaw Thomas, H. (1960) "Agnes Arber, 1879–1960 ''Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society'' Vol.6 (Nov 1960) At the age of eight Arber began attending the North London Collegiate School founded and run by
Frances Buss Frances Mary Buss (16 August 1827 – 24 December 1894) was a British headmistress and a pioneer of girls' education. Life The daughter of Robert William Buss, a painter and etcher, and his wife, Frances Fleetwood, Buss was one of six of their ...
, one of the leading proponents for girls' education. Under the direction of the school's science teacher Edith Aitken, Arber discovered a fascination with botany, publishing her first piece of research in 1894 in the school's magazine and later coming first in the school's botany examinations, winning a scholarship.Packer, K. (1997) ''Notes and records on the Royal Society of London'' Vol.51, No.1 It was here that Arber first met Ethel Sargant, a plant morphologist who gave regular presentations to the school science club. Sargant would later become her mentor and colleague, having a profound influence on Arber's research interests and methods. In 1897 Arber began studying at
University College In a number of countries, a university college is a college institution that provides tertiary education but does not have full or independent university status. A university college is often part of a larger university. The precise usage varies ...
, London, gaining her BSc in 1899. After gaining an entrance scholarship Arber became a member of
Newnham College Newnham College is a women's constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1871 by a group organising Lectures for Ladies, members of which included philosopher Henry Sidgwick and suffragist campaigner Millice ...
, Cambridge and took a further degree in Natural Sciences. She gained first class results in every examination at both universities, along with several prizes and medals from University College, London. After finishing her Cambridge degree in 1902 Arber worked in the private laboratory of Ethel Sargant for a year, before returning to University College, London as holder of the Quain Studentship in Biology. She was awarded a Doctorate of Science in 1905. Agnes Arber married paleobotanist Edward Alexander Newell Arber (1870–1918), in 1909 and moved back to Cambridge, where she would remain for the rest of her life. Her only child Muriel Agnes Arber was born in 1913, became a geologist, and died in 2004. Arber and her husband had many interests in common, and her marriage was described as 'happy'. Arber was awarded a Research Fellowship from Newnham College in 1912 and published her first book '' Herbals, their origin and evolution'' in the same year. Her husband Newall Arber died in 1918 following a period of ill health. Arber never remarried, but continued with her research. She studied in the
Balfour Laboratory for Women Balfour may refer to: People Earls of Balfour * Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour (1848–1930), British Conservative politician, Prime Minister of the UK (1902-1905), made the public statement of Balfour Declaration * Gerald Balfour, 2n ...
from her marriage until the laboratory's closure in 1927. Arber maintained a small laboratory in a back room of her house from then until she stopped performing bench research in the 1940s and turned to philosophical study. Agnes Arber died on 22 March 1960 at the age of 81 and is buried in the churchyard of St Andrew's, Girton.


Scientific career


Early career

Before attending University College, London Arber spent the summer of 1897 working with Ethel Sargant in her private laboratory in Reigate, where Sargant instructed her on microtechniques used to prepare plant specimens for microscopic examination. Arber returned to work in Sargant's laboratory at least once during the summer holidays while she was studying at University College London. Sargant employed Arber between 1902 and 1903 as a research assistant working on seedling structures, during which time in 1903 she published her first paper 'Notes on the anatomy of ''Macrozamia heteromera in ''Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society''. Whilst at University College London Arber conducted research on the
gymnosperm The gymnosperms ( lit. revealed seeds) are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, '' Ginkgo'', and gnetophytes, forming the clade Gymnospermae. The term ''gymnosperm'' comes from the composite word in el, γυμν ...
group of plants, producing several papers on their morphology and anatomy. The study and philosophy of plant morphology would become the central focus of her later work.


Balfour Laboratory, Cambridge

In 1909 Arber was granted space in the Balfour Laboratory for Women by
Newnham College Newnham College is a women's constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1871 by a group organising Lectures for Ladies, members of which included philosopher Henry Sidgwick and suffragist campaigner Millice ...
. This building had been purchased and founded by the two women's colleges of the university in 1884 for the use of their students and researchers (women at this time were not permitted to attend laboratory demonstrations and practical classes). Arber worked in the laboratory until its closure in 1927. Following the award of a Research Fellowship by Newnham College between 1912 and 1913 Arber published her first book in 1912. ''Herbals, their origin and evolution'' describes the transformation of printed Herbals between 1470 and 1670. Arber links the emergence and development of botany as a discipline within natural history with the evolution of plant descriptions, classifications and identifications seen in Herbals during this period. Arber was able to consult the large collection of printed Herbals in the library of the Botany School at Cambridge as part of her research for this work. It was largely re-written and expanded for a second edition published in 1938, was published as a third edition in 1986 and is still considered the standard work for the history of Herbals. Arber focused her research on the anatomy and morphology of the
monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae '' sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one ...
group of plants, which she had originally been introduced to by Ethel Sargant. By 1920 she had authored two books and 94 other publications. Her second book '' Water Plants: A Study of Aquatic Angiosperms'' was published in 1920. In this book Arber presents a comparative study of
aquatic plants Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from algae and other microphytes. A macrophyte is a plant that g ...
by analysing differences in their morphology. Arber also provides interpretations of the general principles she used to create her analysis. Her study was the first to provide a general description and interpretation of aquatic plants. In 1925 Arber published her third book ''The Monocotyledons''. The Editors of the ''Cambridge Botanical Handbooks series'' had asked Ethel Sargant in 1910 to prepare a volume on the
monocots Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, ( Lilianae '' sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one of ...
for this series. However ill-health and advancing years made it almost impossible for Sargant to complete the book, and in 1918 she suggested Arber to complete the work. ''The Monocotyledons'' continues Arber's morphological methods of analysis she presented in ''Water Plants''. She provides a detailed study of the
monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae '' sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one ...
plants from comparing their internal and external anatomy. However her discussion of the general principles she uses in her analysis are more explicit in this volume, as she discusses the methods and philosophy of morphological study. Although comparative anatomical analysis as demonstrated in ''The Monocotyledons'' and ''Water Plants: A Study of Aquatic Angiosperms'' was central to botanical investigation in the early 20th century, there were distinct differences between British and European researchers concerning the aims of morphological study. Arber addressed this by creating a distinction between "pure" and "applied" morphology, with her work focusing on comparative anatomy to investigate questions concerning significant topics such as constructing
phylogenies A phylogenetic tree (also phylogeny or evolutionary tree Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA.) is a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological spec ...
, instead of using traditional views of plant structure. This view was further developed in her later work.


Later work

After the closure of the Balfour Laboratory Arber set up a small laboratory in a back room of her house to conduct her research, after the resident head of the Botany School Professor
Albert Seward Sir Albert Charles Seward FRS (9 October 1863 – 11 April 1941) was a British botanist and geologist. Life Seward was born in Lancaster. His first education was at Lancaster Grammar School and he then went on to St John's College, Cambridge ...
claimed there was no space in the School for Arber to continue her research using its facilities. Arber had been introduced to the idea of private research from her time spent with Ethel Sargant in 1902–1903, and from later comments to members of
Girton College Girton College is one of the Colleges of the University of Cambridge, 31 constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge. The college was established in 1869 by Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon as the first women's college in Cambridge. In 1 ...
Natural Sciences club and in letters to friends she stated she liked working at home due to challenges posed by independent research, despite not originally making the choice herself. After the publication of ''The Monocotyledons'' Arber continued her research into this group, concentrating her research into the Gramineae family of plants, especially cereals, grasses and bamboo. This led to the publication of her final book concerning plant morphology, ''The Gramineae'' in 1934. In this book Arber described the life cycles, embryology and reproductive and vegetative cycles of
cereals A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...
,
grasses Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns ...
and
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
using comparative anatomical analysis of these plants. Recognising the importance of these plants to the development of human societies, Arber begins this study with the history of these plants in relation to humans, with "the more strictly botanical aspect is treated as developing out of the humanistic". The book was preceded by 10 papers in ''The Annals of Botany'' detailing the results of her research. Between 1930 and 1942 Arber conducted research into the structure of flowers, where she investigated the structure of many different forms and used morphological information to interpret other flower structures. Her results were published in 10 review papers spanning this period. In 1937 she published a summary of the morphological ideas which had been discussed concerning floral structure, which was considered an important review article for morphological studies. In January 1942 Arber published her last paper involving original botanical research. All of her subsequent publications were entirely concerned with historical and philosophical topics


Philosophical studies

During the Second World War Arber found it difficult to maintain her small laboratory, as supplies were becoming more difficult to obtain. This led to her decision to stop performing laboratory work and to concentrate more on philosophical and historical issues. Arber published work on historical botanists, including a comparison between Nehemiah Grew and Marcello Malpighi in 1942,
John Ray John Ray FRS (29 November 1627 – 17 January 1705) was a Christian English naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists. Until 1670, he wrote his name as John Wray. From then on, he used 'Ray', after ...
in 1943 and Sir
Joseph Banks Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, (19 June 1820) was an English naturalist, botanist, and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural-history expedition to Newfoundland and Labrador. He took part in Captain James ...
in 1945.Flannery, M 'The Many Sides of Agnes Arber' Arber had been introduced to the work of
Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
while at school and remained fascinated by his ideas about
botany Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
. In 1946 she published ''Goethe's Botany'', a translation of Goethe's ''Metamorphosis of Plants'' (1790) and Georg Christoph Tobler's (1757–1812) ''Die Natur'' with an introduction and interpretation of the texts. ''The Natural Philosophy of Plant Form'', published in 1950 has been considered the most important of Arber's books. It has been described as "a magisterial survey of two thousand years of biological tradition". Arber discusses the processes behind forming a concept from research and examines the philosophy of plant morphology. Arber uses this to examine the structure of flowering plants, and proposes the partial-shoot theory of the leaf. According to this theory, each element of the plant is a shoot or a partial shoot. Leaves are partial shoots that show reduced growth capacity. She mentions: “the leaf is a partial-shoot, revealing an inherent urge towards becoming a whole shoot, but never actually attaining this goal, since radial symmetry and the capacity for apical growth suffer inhibition”. The parallelism of leaf and shoot dates back to
Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
, who first described compound leaves as in "reality branches, the buds of which cannot develop, since the common stalk is too frail". For Arber, compound leaves are clusters of united partial-shoots. Recent developmental genetic evidence has supported aspects of the partial shoot-theory of the leaf, especially in the case of compound leaves. Her studies on the philosophy of plant morphology led her to take a broader view of the links between science and philosophy. ''The Mind and the Eye: A Biologist's Standpoint'' published in 1954 provides an introduction to biological research and develops a methodology for performing this research. Arber describes research as taking place in six stages: the identification of research question or topic; the collection of data through experiments or observation; the interpretation of the data; testing the validity of the interpretation; communicating the results; and considering the research in context. For Arber, the context includes interpreting the result in terms of history and philosophy and covers half of the book. Arber's book is distinctive in that it was written before
Thomas Kuhn Thomas Samuel Kuhn (; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American philosopher of science whose 1962 book '' The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' was influential in both academic and popular circles, introducing the term ''paradig ...
demonstrated that scientist's views are influenced by the views of others in their field and before
Ernst Mayr Ernst Walter Mayr (; 5 July 1904 – 3 February 2005) was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, philosopher of biology, and historian of science. His ...
's criticism of describing the philosophy of biology in the same way as the philosophy of physics. Her final book, ''The Manifold and the One'' published in 1957 is concerned with wider philosophical questions. The book is a wide-ranging and syncretic survey, drawing on literary, scientific, religious, mystical and philosophical traditions, incorporating Buddhist, Hindu and Taoist philosophy with European philosophy., in pursuit of a discussion of the mystical experience which Arber defines as "that direct and unmediated contemplation which is characterised by a peculiarly intense awareness of a Whole as the Unity of all things".


Recognition and awards

In 1921 she accepted the annual position as president of the botany section of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science The British Science Association (BSA) is a charity and learned society founded in 1831 to aid in the promotion and development of science. Until 2009 it was known as the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA). The current Chi ...
, following Edith Saunders the previous year, but soon resigned after some members indicated that they did not want two successive women presidents. When she was offered the presidency again in 1926, she did not accept. In 1946 she was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...
. In 1948 she was awarded the Gold Medal of the
Linnean Society of London The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature coll ...
.


Legacy

A
Blue Plaque A blue plaque is a permanent sign installed in a public place in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person, event, or former building on the site, serving as a historical marker. The term ...
was installed on her childhood home (9 Elsworthy Terrace, Primrose Hill, London) in 2018. There is also a brand of gin named in her honour.


Selected publications

* ** ** * * * * * *


See also

*
Dorothea Pertz Dorothea Frances Matilda "Dora" Pertz FLS (14 March 1859 – 6 March 1939) was a British botanist. She co-authored five papers with Francis Darwin, Charles Darwin's son. She was made a Fellow of the Linnean Society, among the first women admi ...
, for whom Agnes Arber wrote an obituary


References


Bibliography

* * Special issue dedicated to Agnes Arber: Annals of Botany, December 2001, Vol.88 No.6 ** * * * ** * Biographical notes by W. T. Stearn


External links

* * *

* https://www.britannica.com/biography/Agnes-Arber {{DEFAULTSORT:Arber, Agnes 1879 births 1960 deaths Scientists from London English botanists British women botanists English geneticists British translators German–English translators Female Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of the Linnean Society of London People educated at North London Collegiate School Alumni of University College London Academics of University College London Alumni of Newnham College, Cambridge Fellows of Newnham College, Cambridge Fellows of the Royal Society 20th-century British women scientists