Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282, mn, Абаха/Абага хан
(Khalkha
The Khalkha ( Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin k ...
Cyrillic
The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking co ...
),
( Traditional script), "paternal uncle", also transliterated Abaġa), was the second
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
ruler (''Ilkhan'') of the
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
. The son of
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of We ...
and Lady Yesünčin and the grandson of
Tolui, he reigned from 1265 to 1282 and was succeeded by his brother
Ahmed Tekuder.
Much of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at invading Syria, which included the
Second Battle of Homs.
Life
Abaqa was born in
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
on 27 February 1234, son of Ilkhanate founder
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of We ...
. Abaqa was a
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
. A favoured son of Hulagu, he was made governor of
Turkestan.
[Runciman, p. 320.]
Hulagu died from illness in 1265. Before his death, he had been negotiating with the Byzantine Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( el, Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος, Mikhaēl Doukas Angelos Komnēnos Palaiologos; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned as the co-emperor of the Empire ...
to add a daughter of the Byzantine imperial family to Hulagu's number of wives. Michael VIII had selected his illegitimate daughter
Maria Palaiologina, who was dispatched in 1265, escorted by the abbot of
Pantokrator monastery, Theodosius de Villehardouin. Historian
Steven Runciman relates how she was accompanied by the
Patriarch Euthymius of Antioch.
Since Hulagu died before she arrived, she was instead married to Hulagu's son, Abaqa. He received her hand in marriage when he was installed as Ilkhan. When Hulagu's wife Doquz Khatun also died in 1265, the role of spiritual leader transferred to Maria, who was called "Despina Khatun" by the Mongols.
It was Abaqa who decided that the permanent location for the Ilkhanate capital would be
Tabriz, which was in the northwestern grasslands that the Mongols preferred.
Abaqa took power four months after the death of his father, and then spent the next several months redistributing fiefs and governorships.
Some of the coins from Abaqa's era display the Christian cross, and bear in Arabic the Christian inscription "In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, only one God".
Military campaigns
Golden Horde
Since Hulagu's reign, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate had been at war with the Mongols of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
. This continued into Abaqa's reign, and the Golden Horde invaded the Ilkhanate in the Spring after his accession. The invasion was partly due to an alliance between the Golden Horde and the Egyptian Mamluks. As part of this alliance, the Golden Horde attempted to distract Abaqa through attacks on his territories so as to keep him from invading Mamluk-held Syria.
The hostilities continued until the death of the Golden Horde's khan,
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; , tt-Cyrl, Бәркә хан) was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde (division of the Mongol Empire) who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue ...
, in 1267. The Great Khan Kublai attempted to intervene to stop the civil war, and due to his influence, the Golden Horde's new khan,
Möngke Temür
Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the tr ...
did not launch a major invasion into Abaqa's territory. However, Möngke Temür still established an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars promising that he would attack Abaqa and share any conquered territories. But, at the same time, Möngke Temür sent envoys to congratulate Abaqa when the Ilkhan defeated
Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq. In 1270, he allowed
Mengu-Timur to collect his revenues from workshops in Iran.
Chagataids
Ögedei's grandson
Kaidu,
Batu's grandson
Mengu-Timur and
Baraq of the
Chagatai Khanate formed an alliance against Kublai Khan and Abaqa in
Talas. They appointed Kaidu a ruler of Central Asia. The resulting
Kaidu–Kublai war which started in 1268 would carry on until the end of the century.
In 1270,
Baraq Khan of the
Chagatai Khanate tried to annex
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, which resulting in an attack on Abaqa who was in the city of
Herat
Herāt (; Persian: ) is an oasis city and the third-largest city of Afghanistan. In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Selseleh-ye Safē ...
. However, Abaqa was able to launch a successful defence and also defeated Baraq's relative
Teguder in Georgia. In the following year, he retaliated by sending an army against the Chagatai Khanate. They plundered
Bukhara
Bukhara ( Uzbek: /, ; tg, Бухоро, ) is the seventh-largest city in Uzbekistan, with a population of 280,187 , and the capital of Bukhara Region.
People have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia, and the city ...
and surrounding areas. There were small conflicts between Abaqha and the
Qara'unas who were under the control of Chagatai nobles until 1280.
Nizari Ismailis
Invasions of Syria
Diplomatic relations with Christians
Abaqa was one in a long line of Mongol rulers who attempted to secure Western co-operation against the Muslim
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
s. He corresponded with
Pope Clement IV during 1267-1268, and reportedly sent a Mongol ambassador to western Europe in 1268, trying to form a
Franco-Mongol alliance between his forces, those of the West, and those of his father-in-law Michael VIII. He received responses from Rome and from
James I of Aragon, though it is unclear if this was what led to James' unsuccessful expedition to
Acre
The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, of a square mile, 4,840 square ...
in 1269. Abaqa is recorded as having written to the Aragonese king, saying that he was going to send his brother, Aghai, to join the Aragonese when they arrived in
Cilicia
Cilicia (); el, Κιλικία, ''Kilikía''; Middle Persian: ''klkyʾy'' (''Klikiyā''); Parthian: ''kylkyʾ'' (''Kilikiyā''); tr, Kilikya). is a geographical region in southern Anatolia in Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern co ...
. Abaqa also sent embassies to
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a va ...
, and in 1274 sent a Mongol delegation to
Pope Gregory X at the
Second Council of Lyons, where Abaqa's secretary
Rychaldus
Rychaldus, Richaldus or Richardus (13th century) was a clerk and translator (''notarius...ac interpreters Latinorum'')Jackson, p.173 for the Mongol Ilkhanate rulers Hulagu Khan, and then Hulagu's son Abaqa Khan. He was best known for delivering a r ...
read a report to the assembly, reminding them of Hulagu's friendliness towards Christians, and assuring them that Abaqa planned to drive the Muslims from Syria. But neither this diplomatic mission, nor two further embassies to Europe in 1276 and 1277, brought any tangible results.
Campaign during the Ninth Crusade (1271)
In 1260
Bohemond VI of Antioch
Bohemond VI (–1275), also known as the Fair, was the prince of Antioch and count of Tripoli from 1251 until his death. He ruled while Antioch was caught between the warring Mongol Empire and Mamluk Sultanate. In 1268 Antioch was captured by t ...
was persuaded by his father-in-law,
Hetoum I of Armenia, to voluntarily submit to Mongol authority while Abaqa's father Hulagu was in power, making
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ� ...
and
Tripoli vassal states of the Ilkhanate. In 1268, the Mamluk leader Baibars captured Antioch, and Bohemond obtained a truce with Baibars in order to avoid losing Tripoli.
In response to the fall of Antioch,
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a va ...
arrived in Acre in 1271, trying to lead a new Crusade. It was ultimately considered a military failure, but Edward was able to eventually secure a truce with the Mamluks before he had to return to England.
When Edward arrived in Acre, he had sent an embassy to Abaqa, led by Reginald Rossel, Godefroi of Waus and John of Parker, requesting military assistance from the Mongols. Abaqa was occupied with other conflicts in
Turkestan but responded positively to Edward's request, sending 10,000 Mongol horsemen under general
Samagar
Samagar, also Cemakar, was a Mongol general of the Il-Khan ruler Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), mentioned as leading a Mongol invasion force in 1271, in attempted coordination with the Ninth Crusade.
Background
Little is known about Samagar, but h ...
from the occupation army in
Seljuk Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
to Syria:
The Mongols, including some auxiliary Seljuk troops, ravaged the land from
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
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southward. Though the force was relatively small, they triggered an exodus of the Muslim population (who remembered the previous campaigns of the Mongol general
Kitbuqa) as far south as
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metr ...
. Edward, for his part, was never able to muster his own forces to coordinate actions with the Mongols or even achieve any military victories, so Abaqa's forces eventually withdrew. When Baibars mounted a counter-offensive from Egypt on 12 November 1271, the Mongols had already retreated beyond the
Euphrates
The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...
.
Campaigns of 1280–1281
The Mamluk leader
Baibars died in 1277. During 1280 and 1281, Abaqa promoted new attacks against
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
. In September 1280, the Mongols occupied
Baghras and
Darbsak, and took
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
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on October 20. The Mongols sent envoys to Acre to request military support for their campaign, but the Crusaders were still in a 10-year truce with the Mamluks. The Vicar of the Patriarch declined Abaqa's request, saying that the city was suffering from hunger, and that the king of Jerusalem was embroiled in another war. The King of Cyprus
Hugh III and Bohemond VII mobilised their armies, but could not intervene because the Mamluks had already positioned themselves between them and the Mongols.
[Richard, pp. 465–466.]
Abaqa and
Leo III urged the Franks to start a new Crusade, but only the Hospitallers and Edward I (who could not come for lack of funds) responded favourably. The Hospitallers of Marqab made combined raids into the
Buqaia, and won several engagements against the Sultan,
[Runciman, p. 390.] raiding as far as the
Krak des Chevaliers in October 1280, and defeating the Mamluk army of the Krak in February 1281.
The Mongols finally retreated, pledging to come back for the winter of 1281. They informed the Franks that they would bring 50,000 Mongol horsemen and 50,000 Mongol infantry, but apparently this pledge did not receive a response.
Campaign of Autumn 1281
The Egyptian Muslims had respected a 10-year truce with the Crusaders which began in 1271. On 3 May 1281, the new Muslim sultan
Qalawun signed a new 10-year truce with the barons of Acre and a second 10-year truce with
Bohemond VII of Tripoli
Bohemond VII (1261 – October 19, 1287) was the count of Tripoli and nominal prince of Antioch from 1275 to his death. The only part left of the once great Principality of Antioch was the port of Latakia. He spent much of his reign at war with th ...
, on 16 July 1281.
The announced Mongol invasion started in September 1281. They were joined by the Armenians under Leo III, and by about 200
Hospitalier knights from the fortress of
Marqab who considered they were not bound by the truce with the Mamluks.
On 30 October 1281, 50,000 Mongol troops, together with 30,000 Armenians,
Georgians, Greeks and the
Hospitalier Knights of Marqab, fought against the Muslim leader Qalawun at the
Second Battle of Homs, but were beaten back.
["Mangu Timur commanded the Mongol centre, with other Mongol princes on his left, and on his right his Georgian auxiliaries, with King Leo and the Hospitallers", Runciman, pp. 391–392.]
Death and succession
Abaqa died at
Hamadan on 4 April 1282, probably in a state of
delirium tremens. This illness was probably caused by too much consumption of alcohol, a habit common to many Mongol leaders. However, in 1285, his minister of finance
Shams ad-Din Juvayni
Shams al-Din Juvayni ( fa, شمسالدین جوینی; also spelled Joveyni) was a Persian statesman and member of the Juvayni family. He was an influential figure in early Ilkhanate politics, serving as ''sahib-i divan'' (vizier and minister ...
was accused of having had him poisoned.
After Abaqa's death, his widow Maria fled back to Constantinople where her father, apparently wishing to spare his capital the fate that befell Baghdad, tried to marry her off again to another Mongol khan. Maria would not accept the offer, became a
nun, and in about 1285 founded the church of
Panagia Mouchliotissa.
Abaqa was succeeded by his brother
Tekuder, who despite his earlier conflicts with the Egyptian Mamluks, had converted to Islam. Tekuder reversed Abaqa's pro-Christian policies and proposed an alliance with the Mamluk Sultan
Qalawun, who resumed attacks on Frankish territory, capturing the northern fortress of
Margat in 1285,
Lattakia
, coordinates =
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, geocode ...
in 1287, and
Tripoli in 1289. In 1284, Abaqa's son
Arghun led a successful revolt, backed by
Kublai. Arghun had his uncle Tekuder executed and took power himself, returning to the pro-Christian policies of Abaqa.
A younger son,
Gaykhatu, assumed the throne in 1291.
[
][
][
]
Family
Abaqa had sixteen consorts and children with several of them:
Inherited from
Hulagu:
# Öljei Khatun, mother of
Möngke Temür
Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the tr ...
# Tuqtani (or Toqiyatai) (d. 20 February 1292) — former concubine, raised to be a
khatun
Khatun ( Mongolian: хатан; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣, katun; ota, خاتون, hatun or قادین ''kadın''; fa, خاتون ''khātūn''; ; hi, ख़ातून ') is a female title of nobility and counterpart to "khan" or " Khagan" promine ...
, was given
Dokuz Khatun
Doquz Khatun (also spelled Dokuz Khatun) (d. 1265) was a 13th-century princess of the Keraites who was married to Hulagu Khan, founder of the Ilkhanate.
Life
Doquz Khatun was a granddaughter of the Keraite khan Toghrul, through his son Uyku or A ...
's encampment
Principal wives:
#Dorji Khatun
#Nukdan Khatun — from Tatar tribe; replaced Dorji after her death
#*
Gaykhatu
#Eltuzmish Khatun — daughter of Qutlugh Timur Güregen of
Khonggirad, sister of Taraghai Güregen; replaced Nukdan after her death
#
Padishah Khatun — daughter of
Qutb-ud-din Muhammad, ruler of
Kirman and
Kutlugh Turkan
Kutlugh Turkan (c.1208/1213 – 1283), was a ruler of Kirman from 1257 until 1282.
Early life
Different accounts exist regarding her early life. According to "History of Qara-Khitai Shahs" (''Tāriḵ-e šāhi-e Qarāḵtāʾiān'') by anony ...
; was given Yesunchin Khatun's (d. January/February 1272) encampment
#Mertei Khatun — half sister of Taghai Timur (renamed Musa) of
Khongirad (son of Shigu Güregen)
#*Buchin Khatun
#Todai Khatun — a lady from
Khongirad, who afterwards married
Tekuder and after him
Arghun
#*Yul Qutlugh Khatun — married firstly to Eljidei Qushchi, married secondly to Emir Elbasmish
#*Taghai Khatun — married firstly to Ahmad, brother of Qunchuqbal, married secondly to Doladi Idachi;
#
Despina Khatun — daughter of
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( el, Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος, Mikhaēl Doukas Angelos Komnēnos Palaiologos; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned as the co-emperor of the Empire ...
#*Theodora Ara Qutlugh (
Byzantine Greek: Θεοδώρα Ἀραχαντλούν)
#
Buluqhan Khatun (died 20 April 1286) — a lady from the
Bayaut tribe
#*Malika Khatun — married to Toghan, son of Nogai Yarghuchi of
Bayaut
Concubines:
#Bulughachin Aghachi
#Qaitmish Egachi — a lady from the
Öngüd tribe
#*
Arghun
#Bulujin Egachi
#*
Oljath Khatun — married firstly to
Vakhtang II of Georgia, married secondly to
David VIII of Georgia
David VIII ( Georgian: დავით VIII; 1273–1311), from the Bagrationi dynasty, was King of Georgia in 1292–1302 and 1308-1311.
Eldest son of Demetre II the Self-sacrificing by his Trapezuntine wife, he was appointed by the Ilkhan ...
#*
El Qutlugh Khatun — married to Ghurbatai Güregen of the Hushin tribe
#Shirin Egachi
#Altai Egachi
#Kawkabi Egachi
#*Toghanchuq Khatun (died 1291) — married to
Nawruz, son of
Arghun Aqa
Notes
References
*
*
* Roux, Jean-Paul, ''Histoire de l'Empire Mongol'', Fayard,
*
*
Runciman, Steven (1987 (first published in 1952-1954)). ''A History of the Crusades 3''. Penguin Books. .
*
External links
Khan genealogy
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abaqa Khan
1234 births
1282 deaths
Il-Khan emperors
13th-century monarchs in Asia
Lord Edward's crusade
13th-century Buddhists
Mongolian Buddhist monarchs