Aspergillus Parasiticus
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''Aspergillus'' () is a
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
consisting of several hundred
mold A mold () or mould () is one of the structures that certain fungus, fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of Spore#Fungi, spores containing Secondary metabolite#Fungal secondary metabolites, fungal ...
species found in various climates worldwide. ''Aspergillus'' was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist
Pier Antonio Micheli Pier Antonio Micheli (11 December 1679 – 1 January 1737) was a noted Italian botanist, professor of botany in Pisa, curator of the Orto Botanico di Firenze, author of ''Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita''. He discover ...
. Viewing the fungi under a microscope, Micheli was reminded of the shape of an ''
aspergillum An aspergillum ("little sprinkler", less commonly, aspergilium, aspergil or asperger) is a Christian liturgical implement used to sprinkle holy water. It comes in three forms: a freshly cut hyssop branch, a brush-like bundle that is dippe ...
'' (holy water sprinkler), from Latin ''spargere'' (to sprinkle), and named the genus accordingly. Aspergillum is an asexual spore-forming structure common to all ''Aspergillus'' species; around one-third of species are also known to have a sexual stage. While some species of ''Aspergillus'' are known to cause fungal infections, others are of commercial importance.


Taxonomy


Species

In March 2010, ''Aspergillus'' covered 837 species of fungi. Notable species placed in Aspergillus include: * ''
Aspergillus flavus ''Aspergillus flavus'' is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or ...
'' is a notable plant pathogen impacting crop yields and a common cause of
aspergillosis Aspergillosis is a fungal infection of usually the lungs, caused by the genus ''Aspergillus'', a common mold that is breathed in frequently from the air, but does not usually affect most people. It generally occurs in people with lung diseases su ...
. * ''
Aspergillus fumigatus ''Aspergillus fumigatus'' is a species of fungus in the genus ''Aspergillus'', and is one of the most common ''Aspergillus'' species to cause disease in individuals with an immunodeficiency. ''Aspergillus fumigatus'', a saprotroph widespread in ...
'' is the most common cause of
aspergillosis Aspergillosis is a fungal infection of usually the lungs, caused by the genus ''Aspergillus'', a common mold that is breathed in frequently from the air, but does not usually affect most people. It generally occurs in people with lung diseases su ...
in individuals with an
immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency, also known as immunocompromise, is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious diseases and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. Most cases are acquired ("secondary") due to extrinsic factors that aff ...
. * '' Aspergillus nidulans'' has seen heavy use as research organism in cell biology. * ''
Aspergillus niger ''Aspergillus niger'' is a mold classified within the ''Nigri'' section of the ''Aspergillus'' genus. The ''Aspergillus'' genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on de ...
'' is used in the chemical industry for a variety of applications, while also being a known food contaminant and a possible pathogen to humans. * ''
Aspergillus oryzae ''Aspergillus oryzae'', also known as , is a mold used in East Asia to saccharify rice, sweet potato, and barley in the making of alcoholic beverages such as '' sake'' and '' shōchū'', and also to ferment soybeans for making soy sauce and '' ...
'' and '' A. sojae'' are used in East Asian cuisine in the production of ''
sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
'',
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
and other fermented food products. * ''
Aspergillus terreus ''Aspergillus terreus'', also known as ''Aspergillus terrestris'', is a fungus (mold) found worldwide in soil. Although thought to be strictly asexual until recently, ''A. terreus'' is now known to be capable of sexual reproduction. This saprot ...
'' is used in the production of organic acids but can also cause
opportunistic infection An opportunistic infection is an infection that occurs most commonly in individuals with an immunodeficiency disorder and acts more severe on those with a weakened immune system. These types of infections are considered serious and can be caused b ...
s in humans.


Inner taxonomy

The expansive genus ''Aspergillus'' is currently divided into six
subgenera In biology, a subgenus ( subgenera) is a taxonomic rank directly below genus. In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the ge ...
of which many are further split into a total of 27
sections Section, Sectioning, or Sectioned may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * Section (music), a complete, but not independent, musical idea * Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents ** Section sig ...
. * Subgenus '' Circumdati'', divided in 10 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genera '' Petromyces'', '' Neopetromyces'' and '' Fennellia''. * Subgenus '' Nidulantes'', divided in 9 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus '' Emericella''. * Subgenus '' Fumigati'', divided in 4 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus '' Neocarpenteles'', '' Neosartorya'' and '' Dichotomomyces''. * Subgenus ''
Aspergillus ' () is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide. ''Aspergillus'' was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist Pier Antonio Micheli. Viewing the fungi under a microscope, Miche ...
'', divided in 2 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus '' Eurotium''. * Subgenus and section '' Cremei''. Linked to former teleomorphic genus '' Chaetosartorya'' and '' Cristaspora'' * Subgenus and section '' Polypaecilum''. Includes former genera '' Polypaecilum'' and '' Phialosimplex''. The linkage to former teleomorphic genera derive from Samson ''et al.'' (2014). The current division is based on Houbracken ''et al.'' (2020), which also notes that the former teleomorphic genera are now understood as morphotypes: eurotium-type, neosartorya-type, emericella-type, petromyces-type, chaetosartorya-type, fennellia-type and neopetromyces-type.


Growth and distribution

''Aspergillus'' is defined as a group of
conidia A conidium ( ; : conidia), sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium (: chlamydoconidia), is an asexual, non- motile spore of a fungus. The word ''conidium'' comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, ('). They are also ...
l fungi—that is, fungi in an asexual state. Some of them, however, are known to have a teleomorph (sexual state) in the
Ascomycota Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The def ...
. With DNA evidence, all members of the genus ''Aspergillus'' are members of the phylum
Ascomycota Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The def ...
. Members of the genus possess the ability to grow where a high osmotic pressure exists (high concentration of sugar, salt, etc.). ''Aspergillus'' species are highly aerobic and are found in almost all oxygen-rich environments, where they commonly grow as
mold A mold () or mould () is one of the structures that certain fungus, fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of Spore#Fungi, spores containing Secondary metabolite#Fungal secondary metabolites, fungal ...
s on the surface of a substrate, as a result of the high oxygen tension. Commonly, fungi grow on carbon-rich substrates like
monosaccharide Monosaccharides (from Greek '' monos'': single, '' sacchar'': sugar), also called simple sugars, are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers) from which all carbohydrates are built. Chemically, monosaccharides are polyhy ...
s (such as
glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecular formula , which is often abbreviated as Glc. It is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. It is mainly made by plants and most algae d ...
) and
polysaccharides Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long-chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with wat ...
(such as
amylose Amylose is a polysaccharide made of α-D-glucose units, bonded to each other through α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It is one of the two components of starch, making up approximately 20–25% of it. Because of its tightly packed Helix, helical struct ...
). ''Aspergillus'' species are common contaminants of starchy foods (such as bread and potatoes), and grow in or on many plants and trees. In addition to growth on carbon sources, many species of ''Aspergillus'' demonstrate
oligotroph An oligotroph is an organism that can live in an environment that offers very low levels of nutrients. They may be contrasted with copiotrophs, which prefer nutritionally rich environments. Oligotrophs are characterized by slow growth, low rates o ...
y where they are capable of growing in nutrient-depleted environments, or environments with a complete lack of key nutrients. ''
Aspergillus niger ''Aspergillus niger'' is a mold classified within the ''Nigri'' section of the ''Aspergillus'' genus. The ''Aspergillus'' genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on de ...
'' is a prime example of this; it can be found growing on damp walls, as a major component of
mildew Mildew is a form of fungus. It is distinguished from its closely related counterpart, mold, largely by its colour: molds appear in shades of black, blue, red, and green, whereas mildew is white. It appears as a thin, superficial growth consisti ...
. Several species of ''Aspergillus'', including ''A. niger'' and '' A. fumigatus'', will readily colonise buildings, favouring warm and damp or humid areas such as
bathroom A bathroom is a room in which people wash their bodies or parts thereof. It can contain one or more of the following plumbing fixtures: a shower, a bathtub, a bidet, and a sink (also known as a wash basin in the United Kingdom). A toilet is al ...
s and around window frames. ''Aspergillus'' are found in millions of pillows.


Commercial importance

Species of ''Aspergillus'' are important medically and commercially. Some species can cause infection in humans and other animals. Some infections found in animals have been studied for years, while other species found in animals have been described as new and specific to the investigated disease, and others have been known as names already in use for organisms such as saprophytes. More than 60 ''Aspergillus'' species are medically relevant pathogens. For humans, a range of diseases such as infection to the external ear, skin lesions, and ulcers classed as mycetomas are found. Other species are important in commercial microbial fermentations. For example, alcoholic beverages such as Japanese ''
sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
'' are often made from rice or other starchy ingredients (like
manioc ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
), rather than from grapes or malted barley. Typical microorganisms used to make alcohol, such as yeasts of the genus ''
Saccharomyces ''Saccharomyces'' is a genus of fungi that includes many species of yeasts. ''Saccharomyces'' is from Greek σάκχαρον (sugar) and μύκης (fungus) and means ''sugar fungus''. Many members of this genus are considered very important in f ...
'', cannot ferment these starches. Therefore, ''koji'' mold such as ''
Aspergillus oryzae ''Aspergillus oryzae'', also known as , is a mold used in East Asia to saccharify rice, sweet potato, and barley in the making of alcoholic beverages such as '' sake'' and '' shōchū'', and also to ferment soybeans for making soy sauce and '' ...
'' is used to first break down the starches into simpler sugars. Members of the genus are also sources of
natural product A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical s ...
s that can be used in the development of medications to treat human disease. ''Aspergillus'' spp. are known to produce anthraquinone which has commercial importance due to its antibacterial and antifungal properties. Perhaps the largest application of ''
Aspergillus niger ''Aspergillus niger'' is a mold classified within the ''Nigri'' section of the ''Aspergillus'' genus. The ''Aspergillus'' genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on de ...
'' is as the major source of
citric acid Citric acid is an organic compound with the formula . It is a Transparency and translucency, colorless Weak acid, weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in Citrus, citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, ...
; this organism accounts for over 99% of global citric acid production, or more than 1.4 million
tonne The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000  kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the s ...
s (>1.5 million US tons) per year. ''A. niger'' is also commonly used for the production of native and foreign
enzymes An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as pro ...
, including glucose oxidase,
lysozyme Lysozyme (, muramidase, ''N''-acetylmuramide glycanhydrolase; systematic name peptidoglycan ''N''-acetylmuramoylhydrolase) is an antimicrobial enzyme produced by animals that forms part of the innate immune system. It is a glycoside hydrolase ...
, and
lactase Lactase () is an enzyme produced by many organisms and is essential to the complete digestion of whole milk. It breaks down the sugar lactose into its component parts, galactose and glucose. Lactase is found in the brush border of the small ...
. In these instances, the culture is rarely grown on a solid substrate, although this is still common practice in Japan, but is more often grown as a submerged culture in a
bioreactor A bioreactor is any manufactured device or system that supports a biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical reaction, chemical process is carried out which involves organisms or biochemistry, biochem ...
. In this way, the most important parameters can be strictly controlled, and maximal productivity can be achieved. This process also makes it far easier to separate the chemical or enzyme of importance from the medium, and is therefore far more cost-effective.


Research

'' A. nidulans'' (''Emericella nidulans'') has been used as a research organism for many years and was used by
Guido Pontecorvo Guido Pellegrino Arrigo Pontecorvo FRS FRSE (29 November 1907 – 25 September 1999) was an Italian-born Scottish geneticist. Life Guido Pontecorvo was born on 29 November 1907 in Pisa into a family of wealthy Italian industrialists. He was o ...
to demonstrate parasexuality in fungi. Recently, ''A. nidulans'' was one of the pioneering organisms to have its
genome A genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as ...
sequenced by researchers at the
Broad Institute The Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (IPA: , pronunciation respelling: ), often referred to as the Broad Institute, is a biomedical and genomic research center located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The institu ...
. As of 2008, a further seven ''Aspergillus'' species have had their genomes sequenced: the industrially useful ''A. niger'' (two strains), '' A. oryzae'', and '' A. terreus'', and the pathogens '' A. clavatus'', '' A. fischerianus'' (''Neosartorya fischeri''), '' A. flavus'', and '' A. fumigatus'' (two strains). ''A. fischerianus'' is hardly ever pathogenic, but is very closely related to the common pathogen ''A. fumigatus''; it was sequenced in part to better understand ''A. fumigatus'' pathogenicity.


Sexual reproduction

Of the 250 species of aspergilli, about 64% have no known sexual state. However, many of these species likely have an as yet unidentified sexual stage.
Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a gamete ( haploid reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes combines with another gamete to produce a zygote tha ...
occurs in two fundamentally different ways in fungi. These are outcrossing (in heterothallic fungi) in which two different individuals contribute nuclei, and self-fertilization or selfing (in homothallic fungi) in which both nuclei are derived from the same individual. In recent years, sexual cycles have been discovered in numerous species previously thought to be asexual. These discoveries reflect recent experimental focus on species of particular relevance to humans. ''A. fumigatus'' is the most common species to cause disease in
immunodeficient Immunodeficiency, also known as immunocompromise, is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious diseases and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. Most cases are acquired ("secondary") due to extrinsic factors that affec ...
humans. In 2009, ''A. fumigatus'' was shown to have a heterothallic, fully functional sexual cycle. Isolates of complementary mating types are required for sex to occur. ''A. flavus'' is the major producer of
carcinogenic A carcinogen () is any agent that promotes the development of cancer. Carcinogens can include synthetic chemicals, naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, and Biological agent, biologic agent ...
aflatoxin Aflatoxins are various toxicity, poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain Mold (fungus), molds, especially ''Aspergillus'' species such as ''Aspergillus flavus'' and ''Aspergillus parasiticus''. According to the USDA, "The ...
s in crops worldwide. It is also an opportunistic human and animal
pathogen In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a Germ theory of d ...
, causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals. In 2009, a sexual state of this heterothallic fungus was found to arise when strains of opposite mating types were cultured together under appropriate conditions. '' A. lentulus'' is an opportunistic human pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis with high
mortality rate Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular Statistical population, population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Mortality rate is typically ...
s. In 2013, ''A. lentulus'' was found to have a heterothallic functional sexual breeding system. ''A. terreus'' is commonly used in industry to produce important organic acids and enzymes, and was the initial source for the cholesterol-lowering drug
lovastatin Lovastatin, sold under the brand name Mevacor among others, is a statin medication, to treat high blood cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Its use is recommended together with lifestyle changes. It is taken by mouth. ...
. In 2013, ''A. terreus'' was found to be capable of sexual reproduction when strains of opposite mating types were crossed under appropriate culture conditions. These findings with ''Aspergillus'' species are consistent with accumulating evidence, from studies of other
eukaryotic The eukaryotes ( ) constitute the Domain (biology), domain of Eukaryota or Eukarya, organisms whose Cell (biology), cells have a membrane-bound cell nucleus, nucleus. All animals, plants, Fungus, fungi, seaweeds, and many unicellular organisms ...
species, that sex was likely present in the common ancestor of all
eukaryote The eukaryotes ( ) constitute the Domain (biology), domain of Eukaryota or Eukarya, organisms whose Cell (biology), cells have a membrane-bound cell nucleus, nucleus. All animals, plants, Fungus, fungi, seaweeds, and many unicellular organisms ...
s. ''A. nidulans'', a homothallic fungus, is capable of self-fertilization. Selfing involves activation of the same mating pathways characteristic of sex in outcrossing species, i.e. self-fertilization does not bypass required pathways for outcrossing sex, but instead requires activation of these pathways within a single individual. Among those ''Aspergillus'' species that exhibit a sexual cycle, the overwhelming majority in nature are homothallic (self-fertilizing). This observation suggests ''Aspergillus'' species can generally maintain sex though little
genetic variability Genetic variability is either the presence of, or the generation of, genetic differences. It is defined as "the formation of individuals differing in genotype, or the presence of genotypically different individuals, in contrast to environmentally ...
is produced by homothallic self-fertilization. ''A. fumigatus'', a heterothallic (outcrossing) fungus that occurs in areas with widely different climates and environments, also displays little genetic variability either within geographic regions or on a global scale, again suggesting sex, in this case outcrossing sex, can be maintained even when little genetic variability is produced.


Genomics

The simultaneous publication of three ''Aspergillus'' genome manuscripts in ''
Nature Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the Ecosphere (planetary), ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the Scientific law, laws, elements and phenomenon, phenomena of the physic ...
'' in December 2005 established the genus as the leading filamentous fungal genus for comparative genomic studies. Like most major genome projects, these efforts were collaborations between a large sequencing centre and the respective community of scientists. For example, the Institute for Genome Research (TIGR) worked with the ''A. fumigatus'' community. ''A. nidulans'' was sequenced at the Broad Institute. ''A. oryzae'' was sequenced in Japan at the
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology The , or AIST, is a Japanese research facility headquartered in Tokyo, and most of the workforce is located in Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, and in several cities throughout Japan. The institute is managed to integrate scientific and enginee ...
. The Joint Genome Institute of the Department of Energy has released sequence data for a citric acid-producing strain of ''A. niger''. TIGR, now renamed the J. Craig Venter Institute, is currently spearheading a project on the ''A. flavus'' genome. ''Aspergillus'' is characterized by high levels of genetic diversity and, using protostome divergence as a scale, is as diverse as the Vertebrates phylum although both inter and intra-specific genome structure is relatively plastic. The genomes of some ''Aspergillus'' species, such as ''A. flavus'' and ''A. oryzae'', are more rich and around 20% larger than others, such as ''A. nidulans'' and ''A. fumigatus''. Several mechanisms could explain this difference, although the combination of segmental duplication, genome duplication, and horizontal gene transfer acting in a piecemeal fashion is well-supported. Genome sizes for sequenced species of ''Aspergillus'' range from about 29.3 Mb for ''A. fumigatus'' to 37.1 Mb for ''A. oryzae'', while the numbers of predicted genes vary from about 9926 for ''A. fumigatus'' to about 12,071 for ''A. oryzae''. The genome size of an enzyme-producing strain of ''A. niger'' is of intermediate size at 33.9 Mb.


Pathogens

Some ''Aspergillus'' species cause serious disease in humans and animals. The most common pathogenic species are '' A. fumigatus'' and '' A. flavus'', which produces
aflatoxin Aflatoxins are various toxicity, poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain Mold (fungus), molds, especially ''Aspergillus'' species such as ''Aspergillus flavus'' and ''Aspergillus parasiticus''. According to the USDA, "The ...
which is both a toxin and a carcinogen, and which can contaminate foods such as nuts. The most common species causing
allergic Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, alle ...
disease are ''A. fumigatus'' and '' A. clavatus''. Other species are important as agricultural pathogens. ''Aspergillus'' spp. cause disease on many grain crops, especially
maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...
, and some variants synthesize
mycotoxin A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης , "fungus" and τοξικός , "poisonous") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term 'mycotoxin' is usually rese ...
s, including aflatoxin. ''Aspergillus'' can cause neonatal infections. ''A. fumigatus'' (the most common species) infections are primary pulmonary infections and can potentially become a rapidly necrotizing pneumonia with a potential to disseminate. The organism can be differentiated from other common mold infections based on the fact that it takes on a mold form both in the environment and in the host (unlike ''
Candida albicans ''Candida albicans'' is an opportunistic pathogenic yeast that is a common member of the human gut flora. It can also survive outside the human body. It is detected in the gastrointestinal tract and mouth in 40–60% of healthy adults. It is usu ...
'' which is a dimorphic mold in the environment and a yeast in the body).


Aspergillosis

Aspergillosis Aspergillosis is a fungal infection of usually the lungs, caused by the genus ''Aspergillus'', a common mold that is breathed in frequently from the air, but does not usually affect most people. It generally occurs in people with lung diseases su ...
is the group of diseases caused by ''Aspergillus''. The most common species among paranasal sinus infections associated with aspergillosis is '' A. fumigatus''. The symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, or breathlessness, which also occur in many other illnesses, so diagnosis can be difficult. Usually, only patients with already weakened
immune system The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to bacteria, as well as Tumor immunology, cancer cells, Parasitic worm, parasitic ...
s or who suffer other
lung The lungs are the primary Organ (biology), organs of the respiratory system in many animals, including humans. In mammals and most other tetrapods, two lungs are located near the Vertebral column, backbone on either side of the heart. Their ...
conditions are susceptible. In humans, the major forms of disease are: * Acute invasive aspergillosis, a form that grows into surrounding tissue, more common in those with weakened
immune system The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to bacteria, as well as Tumor immunology, cancer cells, Parasitic worm, parasitic ...
s such as
AIDS The HIV, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that attacks the immune system. Without treatment, it can lead to a spectrum of conditions including acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is a Preventive healthcare, pr ...
or
chemotherapy Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (list of chemotherapeutic agents, chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard chemotherapy re ...
patients * Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, which affects patients with respiratory diseases such as
asthma Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wh ...
,
cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder inherited in an autosomal recessive manner that impairs the normal clearance of Sputum, mucus from the lungs, which facilitates the colonization and infection of the lungs by bacteria, notably ''Staphy ...
, and
sinusitis Sinusitis, also known as rhinosinusitis, is an inflammation of the mucous membranes that line the sinuses resulting in symptoms that may include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure ...
*
Aspergilloma An aspergilloma is a clump of mold which exists in a body cavity such as a paranasal sinus or an organ such as the lung. By definition, it is caused by fungi of the genus ''Aspergillus''. Signs and symptoms People with aspergillomata typically re ...
, a "fungus ball" that can form within cavities such as the lung * Disseminated invasive aspergillosis, an infection spread widely through the body
Fungal A fungus (: fungi , , , or ; or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the tradit ...
infections from Aspergillus spores remain one theory of sickness and untimely death of some early Egyptologists and tomb explorers. Ancient spores which grew on the remains of food offerings and mummies sealed in tombs and chambers may have been blown around and inhaled by the excavators, ultimately linked to the notion of the curse of the pharaohs. Aspergillosis of the air passages is also frequently reported in birds, and certain species of ''Aspergillus'' have been known to infect insects. Most people inhale ''Aspergillus'' into their lungs everyday, but generally only the
immuno-compromised Immunodeficiency, also known as immunocompromise, is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious diseases and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. Most cases are acquired ("secondary") due to extrinsic factors that affec ...
become sick with
aspergillosis Aspergillosis is a fungal infection of usually the lungs, caused by the genus ''Aspergillus'', a common mold that is breathed in frequently from the air, but does not usually affect most people. It generally occurs in people with lung diseases su ...
.


See also

*
Mold health issues Mold health issues refer to the harmful health effects of Mold (fungus), molds ("moulds" in British English) and their mycotoxins. Molds are ubiquitous in the biosphere, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. Th ...
*
Sick building syndrome Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside. In scientific literature, SBS is also known as building-related illn ...
* Cryptococcus


References


Further reading

* * * *


External links


Aspergillus Comparative Database
Comparative genomic resource at the
Broad Institute The Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (IPA: , pronunciation respelling: ), often referred to as the Broad Institute, is a biomedical and genomic research center located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The institu ...

Aspergillus Genome Resources (NIH)

''Aspergillus'' surveillance project at a large tertiary-care hospital.
(
PDF Portable document format (PDF), standardized as ISO 32000, is a file format developed by Adobe Inc., Adobe in 1992 to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, computer hardware, ...
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Central Aspergillus Data Repository

FungiDB: An integrated functional genomics database for fungi and oomycetes

Mold and Mildew

The Aspergillus Genome Database

The Aspergillus/Aspergillosis Website
An encyclopedia of ''Aspergillus'' for patients, doctors and scientists
The Fungal Genetics Stock Center
{{Authority control Parasitic fungi Eurotiomycetes genera Taxa described in 1768