Aristides De Sousa Mendes

Aristides de Sousa Mendes do Amaral e Abranches (; July 19, 1885 – April 3, 1954) was a Portuguese diplomat who is recognized in Portugal as a national hero for his actions during World War II. As the Portuguese consul-general in the French city of Bordeaux, he defied the orders of António de Oliveira Salazar's Estado Novo regime, issuing visas and passports to thousands of refugees fleeing Nazi-occupied France, including Jews.

As a result of his actions, Sousa Mendes was recalled to Portugal and stood trial for defying the regime. He was punished with demotion and forced retirement. He was unable to find other employment and died in poverty in 1954.

For his efforts to save Jewish refugees, Sousa Mendes was recognized by Israel as one of the Righteous Among the Nations in 1966, the first diplomat to be so honored. To many, Aristides de Sousa Mendes was one of the greatest heroes of World War II. Holocaust scholar Yehuda Bauer characterized Sousa Mendes' deeds as "perhaps the largest rescue action by a single individual during the Holocaust."

Sousa Mendes was only vindicated in 1987, more than a decade after the Carnation Revolution which toppled the Estado Novo. He was posthumously awarded the prestigious Order of Liberty (Ordem da Liberdade). In 1988, the Portuguese national assembly voted unanimously for his rehabilitation; charges were dismissed against him and he was reinstated in the diplomatic corps. In 1995, Portuguese President Mário Soares declared Sousa Mendes to be "Portugal's greatest hero of the twentieth century."

In 2007, the Portuguese TV program ''Os Grandes Portugueses'' voted Aristides de Sousa Mendes the third greatest Portuguese person of all time. On 9 June 2020, Sousa Mendes was inducted into the National Pantheon in Lisbon, with a ceremony held the following year, presided by the President of Portugal. On 19 July 2024, the Aristides de Sousa Mendes Museum was inaugurated in Cabanas de Viriato, his home town.

Early life

Aristides de Sousa Mendes was born in Cabanas de Viriato, in the district of Viseu, Centro Region of Portugal, in July 1885 together with his twin brother César, to a family of aristocrats. Their mother, Maria Angelina Coelho Ribeiro, was a granddaughter of the 2nd Viscount of Midões, a lower rural aristocracy title. Their father, José de Sousa Mendes, was a judge on the Coimbra Court of Appeals. César served as Foreign Minister in 1932, in the early days of António de Oliveira Salazar's regime. Their younger brother, Jose Paulo, became a naval officer.

Sousa Mendes and his twin studied law at the University of Coimbra, and each obtained his degree in 1908. In that same year, Sousa Mendes married his childhood sweetheart, Maria Angelina Coelho de Sousa Mendes (born August 20, 1888), who was also his cousin. They eventually had fourteen children, born in the various countries in which he served. Shortly after his marriage, Sousa Mendes began his diplomatic career that would take him and his family around the world. On 12 May 1910, Aristides was appointed consul in the city of Demerara, British Guiana. He was then consul in Zanzibar (1911-1918), Curitiba (1918–1919), San Francisco (1921-1924), S. Luís do Maranhão (April 1924), Porto Alegre (1924-1926), Vigo (1927-1929), Antwerp (1929-1938).

In 1938, he was assigned to the post of Consul-General of Bordeaux, France, with jurisdiction over the whole of the Southwest of France.

World War II and Circular 14

In 1932, the Portuguese dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar began, and by 1933, the secret police, known as Surveillance and State Defense Police, or PIDE, had been created. According to historian Avraham Milgram, by 1938, Salazar "knew the Nazis' approach to the 'Jewish question'. From fears that aliens might undermine the regime, entry to Portugal was severely limited. Toward this end, the apparatus of the PIDE was extended with its International Department given greater control over border patrol and the entry of aliens. Presumably, most aliens wishing to enter Portugal at that time were Jews." Portugal during World War II, like its European counterparts, adopted tighter immigration policies, preventing refugees from settling in the country. Circular 10, of 28 October 1938, addressed to consular representatives, deemed that settling was forbidden to Jews, allowing entrance only on a tourist visa for thirty days.

On 1 September 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland, leading France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany, precipitating the start of World War II.

The number of refugees trying to make use of Portugal's neutrality as an escape route increased, and between the months of September and December approximately 9,000 refugees entered Portugal.

On 11 November 1939, the Portuguese government sent Circular 14 to all Portuguese consuls throughout Europe, stating the categories of war refugees whom the PVDE considered to be "inconvenient or dangerous."Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Portugal, ''Spared Lives: The Actions of Three Portuguese Diplomats in World War II'', Documentary Exhibition, Catalogue, September 2000, p.81. The categories included “Jews expelled from their countries or those from whence they issue, stateless persons, and all those who cannot freely return to the countries whence they come."

Sousa Mendes' disobedience to the orders of the Salazar dictatorship

Sousa Mendes began disobeying Circular 14 almost immediately, on the grounds that it was an inhumane and racist directive.

The process that ended with Sousa Mendes' discharge from his consular career began with two visas: the first was issued on 28 November 1939 to Professor Arnold Wiznitzer, an Austrian historian who had been stripped of his nationality by the Nuremberg Laws, and the second on 1 March 1940 to the Spanish Republican Eduardo Neira Laporte, an anti-Franco activist living in France. Sousa Mendes granted the visas first, and only after granting the visas did he ask for the required approvals. Sousa Mendes was reprimanded and warned in writing that "any new transgression or violation on this issue will be considered disobedience and will entail a disciplinary procedure where it will not be possible to overlook that you have repeatedly committed acts which have entailed warnings and reprimands."

When Sousa Mendes issued these visas, it was a deliberate act of disobedience to the decree of an authoritarian dictatorship. "Here was a unique act by a man who believed his religion imposed certain obligations", said Mordecai Paldiel, former Director (1984–2007) of the Department of the Righteous Among the Nations at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem. "He said, 'I'm saving innocent lives,' as simply as he might have said, 'Come, walk with me in my garden.'"

On 15 May, Sousa Mendes issued transit visas to Maria Tavares, a Luxembourg citizen of Portuguese origin, and to her husband Paul Miny, also a Luxembourger. Two weeks later, the couple returned to the Bordeaux Consulate asking Sousa Mendes to issue them false papers. Sousa Mendes agreed to their request, and on 30 May 1940, he issued a Portuguese passport listing Paul Miny as Maria's brother, therefore as having Portuguese citizenship. This time Sousa Mendes risked himself a great deal more than he had before; disobeying Circular 14 was one thing, but issuing a passport with a false identity, for someone of military age was a crime. Sousa Mendes later provided the following explanation: "This couple asked me for a Portuguese passport, where they would figure as brother and sister, for fear that the husband, who was still of military age, would be detained on passing the French border, and incorporated in the Luxembourg army then being organized in France."

There were other cases from May 1940 where Sousa Mendes disobeyed Circular 14. Examples include issuing visas to the Ertag, Flaksbaum and Landesman families, all granted on 29 May, despite having been rejected in a telegram from the Portuguese dictator Salazar to Sousa Mendes. Another example is the writer Gisèle Quittner, rejected by Salazar but rescued by Sousa Mendes, to whom she expressed her gratitude: "You are Portugal's best propaganda and an honor to your country. All those who know you praise your courage...."

As the German army approached Paris,Lansing Warren, "Refugee Millions Suffer in France; Roads From Paris to Bordeaux Jammed With Wanderers Pitifully in Need", ''The New York Times'', 19 June 1940. Bordeaux and other southern French cities were overrun by desperate refugees. One of these was a Hassidic Rabbi, Chaim Kruger, originally from Poland but more recently from Brussels, escaping with his wife and five children. Kruger and Sousa Mendes met by chance in Bordeaux, and quickly became friends. Sousa Mendes offered a visa to the Kruger family in defiance of Circular 14. In response, Kruger took a moral stand and refused to accept the visa unless all of his "brothers and sisters" (the mass of Jewish refugees stranded on the streets of Bordeaux) received visas too. Kruger's response plunged Sousa Mendes into "a moral crisis of incalculable proportions."

On 17 June, when Pétain called for a German armistice, Sousa Mendes emerged from his seclusion, impelled by "a divine power," with his decision made. According to his son Pedro Nuno, "My father got up, and announced in a loud voice: 'From now on I'm giving everyone visas. There will be no more nationalities, races or religions.' Then our father told us that he had heard a voice, that of his conscience or of God, which dictated to him what course of action he should take, and that everything was clear in his mind."

His daughter Isabel and her husband Jules strongly opposed his decision, and tried to dissuade him from what they considered to be a fatal mistake. But Sousa Mendes did not listen to them and instead began to work intensively to grant the visas. "I would rather stand with God and against man than with man and against God," he reportedly explained. He set up an assembly line process, aided by his wife, sons Pedro Nuno and José Antonio, his secretary José Seabra, Rabbi Kruger, and a few other refugees.

After Bordeaux was bombed by the Wehrmacht on the night of 19–20 June 1940, the demand for Portuguese visas intensified, not only in Bordeaux but also in nearby Bayonne, near the Spanish border. Sousa Mendes rushed to the Portuguese Consulate in Bayonne, which was under his jurisdiction, to relieve the Vice-Consul Faria Machado, who was refusing to grant visas to the crush of refugees.

In issuing visas at the Bayonne consulate, Sousa Mendes was aided by the Bayonne vice-consul, Manuel de Vieira Braga. Faria Machado, a Salazar loyalist in charge of the Bayonne consulate, reported this behaviour to Portugal's ambassador to Spain, Pedro Teotónio Pereira. Teotónio Pereira, another Salazar loyalist, promptly set out for the French-Spanish border to put a stop to this activity. After observing Sousa Mendes' action, Teotónio Pereira sent a telegram to the Lisbon authorities in which he described Sousa Mendes as being "out of his mind" and also said that Sousa Mendes' "disorientation has made a great impression on the Spanish side with a political campaign against Portugal being created immediately accusing our country of giving shelter to the scum of the democratic regimes and defeated elements fleeing before the German victory." He declared Sousa Mendes to be mentally incompetent and, acting on Salazar's authority, he invalidated all further visas.

Sousa Mendes continued on to Hendaye

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