Anosy is one of the 23
regions of Madagascar
Madagascar is divided into 23 region, regions (''faritra''). These formerly second-tier administrative divisions became first-level administrative divisions when the former six Provinces of Madagascar, provinces were dissolved on 4 October 2009. ...
. It is located in the southeast of the country, on the eastern side of what was once the
Toliara Province. The name ''Anosy'' means "island(s)" in
Malagasy.
Due to a strategic sea route running along its coast, Anosy had been an important crossroads for the Malagasy, Muslims, and Europeans. In the mid-1600s, it was the location of the first
French colonial settlement in the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
. The region was part of the I
merina Kingdom
The Kingdom of Merina, also known as the Kingdom of Madagascar and officially the Kingdom of Imerina (; –1897), was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 18th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar. ...
for much of the 1800s and part of the
French colony of Madagascar from the late 1800s to 1960.
Its exports have included
human slaves (shipped to the
Mascarene Islands
The Mascarene Islands (, ) or Mascarenes or Mascarenhas Archipelago is a group of islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar consisting of islands belonging to the Republic of Mauritius as well as the French department of Réunion. Their na ...
and the United States in the 1700s), live
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
(exported to
Réunion
Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
for almost 300 years),
sisal
Sisal (, ; ''Agave sisalana'') is a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico, but widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a stiff fibre used in making rope and various other products. The sisal fiber is ...
,
natural rubber
Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds.
Types of polyisoprene ...
,
rosy periwinkle,
graphite
Graphite () is a Crystallinity, crystalline allotrope (form) of the element carbon. It consists of many stacked Layered materials, layers of graphene, typically in excess of hundreds of layers. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable ...
,
uranothorianite,
lobster
Lobsters are Malacostraca, malacostracans Decapoda, decapod crustaceans of the family (biology), family Nephropidae or its Synonym (taxonomy), synonym Homaridae. They have long bodies with muscular tails and live in crevices or burrows on th ...
,
sapphire
Sapphire is a precious gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of aluminium oxide () with trace amounts of elements such as iron, titanium, cobalt, lead, chromium, vanadium, magnesium, boron, and silicon. The name ''sapphire ...
s, and
ilmenite
Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printi ...
. Due to its
biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variability of life, life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and Phylogenetics, phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distribut ...
and unique
wildlife
Wildlife refers to domestication, undomesticated animals and uncultivated plant species which can exist in their natural habitat, but has come to include all organisms that grow or live wilderness, wild in an area without being species, introdu ...
, efforts commenced in the 1980s to promote
environmental conservation Environmental conservation may refer to:
* Environmental protection
* Nature conservation
{{disambiguation ...
and
tourism
Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the Commerce, commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel. World Tourism Organization, UN Tourism defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as ...
in the region.
The region suffers from poverty; 80% of inhabitants lack access to
clean water
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. ...
, 16% suffer from serious respiratory illnesses, and
literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
is less than 20%.
[
]
History
Early history
The early history of Anosy is based primarily on archeological digs in the Efaho valley, just west of Fort-Dauphin. These 11th–13th century sites on the coastal dunes were small ( in size) and seasonal or temporary, based on the need to move to find food. Activities focused on fishing, cultivation of tubers and hunting. Iron working was also present. Trade was limited to the northeast, along the coast, and formed a very simple economic and social system.[Rakotoarlsoa, Jean-Aimé. (1998). ''Mille ans d'occupation humaine dans le sud-est de Madagascar Anosy, Une île au milieu des terres''](_blank)
/ref>
Evidence suggests that between the 13th and 15th centuries, those living in Anosy were working chlorite schist
The chlorite ion, or chlorine dioxide anion, is the halite with the chemical formula of . A chlorite (compound) is a compound that contains this group, with chlorine in the oxidation state of +3. Chlorites are also known as salts of chlorous ...
which was exchanged through the trade network for Chinese greenware pottery. A Chinese nautical map from 1315 shows Madagascar's coastline, winds and currents. Settlements grew slightly, primarily located on the flood plains and coastal lagoons, with cultivation of sweet potatoes and further development of iron working. In the early 14th century, a Gujarat
Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...
ship wrecked off the Anosy coast; it has been theorized that the stranded Gujarati went north to found the Zarabehava dynasty of Antesaka, though some scholars disagree.[Kent, R.K. (1992). Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean. In Ogot, B.A. (Ed.), ''General History of Africa-V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth century.'' Paris: UNESCO.]
Zafiraminia dynasty
In the 16th century, the Zafiraminia (descendants of the Muslim Ramini) arrived in present-day Anosy and moved into the Efaho valley after being defeated by the Antambahoaka people to the north.[Domenichini-Ramiaramanana, B. (1988). Madagascar. In M. Elfasi (Ed.), General history of Africa * III: Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century. Paris: UNESCO.](_blank)
/ref> The Zafiraminia had lived in Madagascar from about the 13th century and had assimilated into the Malagasy population; they did not have Islamic institutions though they retained Arabic script and several socio-religious practices. The Zafiraminia introduced the use of wooden huts, owning cattle as a sign of wealth, and established a dynasty that lasted 200 years.
The Zafiraminia established a stratified society with elaborate rituals, aided by their literacy, which was viewed as a kind of magic. Their settlements were further inland, in size, and may have been fortified with ditches and wooden palisades.
European contact and Jesuit mission
While the Zafiraminia moved into Anosy from the north, Europeans began arriving from the south. On 10 August 1500, a Portuguese crew – whose ship had been separated from the 2nd Portuguese India Armada during a storm – became the first Europeans to see Madagascar, at the southern coast near present-day Fort-Dauphin. They named it Ilha de São Lourenço ("Saint-Laurent" in French). There were at least five shipwrecks on this coast between 1504 and 1507, and historian Mike Pearson believes some of the Portuguese survivors built the fort ''Tranovato'' (English: house of stone), a stone blockhouse located on a hill west of present-day Fort-Dauphin. Others believe it was erected a generation later, but it is likely the first European building on Madagascar, and sheltered shipwrecked sailors awaiting rescue.[Canitrot. (1921). Les Portugais sur la côte orientale de Madagascar et en Anosy au XVIe siècle (1500-1613-1617). ''Revue Francaise d'Histoire d'Outre Mer, 04-06'', 203–238.](_blank)
/ref> Other shipwrecked sailors were able to assimilate, possibly aided by being light-skinned like the ruling Zafiraminia who claimed to be descended from Arabs. On 4 August 1508, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira arrived on a Portuguese trade mission, recovering two shipwreck survivors who served as a Malagasy translators for contact and resupply. Trading colonies were attempted by the Portuguese and the French, but initial efforts were short-lived and abandoned. Shipwrecks continued and conditions at Anosy led cartographer Jean Parmentier to describe the waters as "the ocean without reason".
In 1613, a Portuguese expedition to Madagascar visited the stone fort at Travovato, which was occupied by a local king, Chambanga. A treaty of friendship was agreed, trade was opened, and a church was built for Jesuit missionaries
The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 ...
to begin evangelism. A dispute broke out when the king apparently refused an offer to send his son Drian-Ramaka to Goa for Catholic education; the sailors seized the boy by force and their ship was briefly attacked before sailing to Goa. In April 1616 the Jesuits returned to Anosy to exchange Drian-Ramaka for Chambanga's other sons, which the king refused; following accusations, and realizing their missionary work was in jeopardy, the Jesuits settled for a distant relation of the king. Chambanga became further distrustful when the Portuguese began prospecting for gold and silver; he suspended trade, attempting to starve them out of Anosy. This continued when Drian-Ramaka succeeded his father, and respected the folk religion instead of embracing Catholicism. Suffering in isolation and having baptized only one Malagasy person over a year, the Jesuits left Anosy in 1617.[Camboué, P. (1910). Madagascar. In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: Robert Appleton.](_blank)
/ref>
Early French settlements
Beginning in 1604, French King Henry IV began sending ships to Madagascar to compete with the Dutch colonies at the Gold Coast of Africa. In 1642, Cardinal Richelieu sought possession of Madagascar for France, granting trading rights to Captain Rigault and associates who created the first French East India Company. A French settlement was established at Manafiafy in Anosy. There were many deaths in the first months, likely due to malaria and dysentery in the swampy area, and the settlement was moved southwest to the peninsula of Taolanara where they built what was later named Fort Dauphin, France's first colony in the Indian Ocean. The site was above sea level, and with a redoubt built across the peninsula was defensible from sea and land.
The French found Dian Ramaka to be friendly; their settlement sites were at the edge of the Zafiraminia's world and did not cause an affront. Sieur Jacques de Pronis, the first governor of the French East India Company, married a Zafindraminia noblewoman. However, Pronis angered the colonists who put him in chains; following his rescue, the rebels – both French and Malagasy – were banished to Réunion
Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
Island. Étienne de Flacourt took over as governor, and sought to establish several colonies in Madagascar to resupply European ships travelling to the Indies, obtaining food from the Malagasy through trade or by force, and selling indigo, tobacco and sugarcane to fund colonial expansion. By this time, rice and cattle had become the primary food sources. According to historian R. K. Kent, Anosy was one of the most-densely populated parts of Madagascar with considerable agricultural surpluses. The Malagasy traded for ceramics from China, England, France and Portugal.
Successive governors of Fort Dauphin in the mid-17th century sought to conquer Anosy by wresting control from the Zafiraminia kings, who had united under Dian Ramack (and later, his son Andriampanolahy). Several military campaigns pillaged and burned villages, killed and enslaved Malagasy, and stole tens of thousands of cattle. The Malagasy made reprisals with massacres, poisonings, and captured and burned Fort Dauphin. During the same period, missionary work was conducted by the Lazarist Congregation of the Mission
The Congregation of the Mission (), abbreviated CM and commonly called the Vincentians or Lazarists, is a Catholic Church, Catholic society of apostolic life of pontifical right for men founded by Vincent de Paul. It is associated with the Vin ...
. In 1674, after the French East India Company had twice been reorganized due to poor profits, the rebuilt Fort Dauphin was evacuated and the colony abandoned. The colonial failure was a bitter experience for the French, who left behind as many as 4,000 French casualties, and was a source of political embarrassment for 200 years.
Feudal rule
Conflict continued in Anosy following the French evacuation. When shipwrecked pirates took shelter at Fort Dauphin in 1697, their leader, Abraham Samuel, a mulatto from Martinique, was installed as a king. Until his death in 1705, Samuel led pirate–Anosy forces in constant warfare with Antanosy king Diamarang Diamera. The Zafiraminia also attempted to regain control, without success; they faced a number of revolts. The number and size of settlements shrank, and moved further inland.
Frenchman arrived to rebuild Fort Dauphin as a supply base in 1768. He found that there were 35 rulers in Anosy, many of whom were at war with one another, and none of whom governed more than 3,000 people. He signed 30 treaties with local kings, making alliances by supplying them with muskets (over 10,000 muskets and 50 tons of gunpowder were sold). However, the French government abolished the French East India Company the following year, and Maudave's trading settlement was abandoned. At about the time of the French departure, the Zafiriminia kingdom also fell, having been ravaged by warfare since the mid-1600s.
In 1819, the French again reopened Fort Dauphin, after negotiating with the Zafiraminia chief Rabefania. The chief sought French protection from the Imerina Kingdom
The Kingdom of Merina, also known as the Kingdom of Madagascar and officially the Kingdom of Imerina (; –1897), was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 18th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar. ...
which was seeking to conquer the whole of Madagascar. Fort Dauphin continued to export cattle, and also became a slaving base and operated a rum distillery.
Imerina control
An army of the Imerina Kingdom
The Kingdom of Merina, also known as the Kingdom of Madagascar and officially the Kingdom of Imerina (; –1897), was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 18th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar. ...
of central Madagascar, numbering 3,000–4,000 soldiers, moved down the coast of Anosy and took Fort Dauphin on 14 March 1825, at which point the Imerina Kingdom controlled the entire eastern coast of Madagascar. The fort was garrisoned by 800 Imerina troops armed with muskets which, along with garrisons at other coastal towns, controlled shipping & trade. Most of Anosy, however, resisted the brutal treatment by the Imerina and was effectively self-ruled. The Imerina pursued a policy of isolationism and dismantled treaties with England and France.
Successive Imerina monarchs were alternately influenced by the French and English. In 1869, Imerina Queen Ranavalona II converted to Christianity. A church was built at Fort Dauphin and attendance made mandatory. Evangelists from the London Missionary Society
The London Missionary Society was an interdenominational evangelical missionary society formed in England in 1795 at the instigation of Welsh Congregationalist minister Edward Williams. It was largely Reformed tradition, Reformed in outlook, with ...
later took leadership of the church.
Franco-Malagasy Wars
France invaded Madagascar in 1883, to counter the growing British influence in the Indian Ocean. This first Madagascar expedition concentrated mainly on the north of Madagascar, where Imerina power was centered. This created an opportunity for the Antanosy to revolt and seize Fort Dauphin, though the Imerina reclaimed it in 1884. In 1885, the fort was bombarded by a French warship and evacuated.
In 1887–88, Norwegian missionary Nielsen-Lund described the Antanosy population as "very scattered" and ruled by 30 feudal kings, and that northern Anosy was a lawless place. A Lutheran church and school was established outside Fort Dauphin, but the support given by the Queen of Imerina caused the missionaries to be viewed as collaborators by the Antanosy. In the following years, additional churches were established at Evatraha, Mandromondromotry, and Mahatalaky. In 1891, natural rubber was discovered in western Anosy, and within a year 1,680 tons were exported.
The strategic importance of Madagascar had declined following the opening of the Suez Canal. Britain and France redefined their spheres of influence in Africa; Britain gained control of Zanzibar in return for recognizing Madagascar as a French protectorate. The French then launched the second Madagascar expedition in 1894. Again, the invaders concentrated themselves mainly on the Imerina strongholds, and conquered north and central Madagascar in 1895. In Anosy, the Antandroy overran a number of European trading stations, forcing the foreigners out and plundering their stores.
French colony
Madagascar officially became a French colony on 6 August 1896, and French troops took control of Fort Dauphin. Europeans reported a great deal of insecurity elsewhere in southern Madagascar. The interior of Anosy was ruled by Antanosy king Rabefagnatrika, who was a rival of pro-French Manambaro king Rabefially. Southern Madagascar was conquered by the French in 1898, using counter-insurgency methods developed in Indochina.
In 1897, the French governor reintroduced the Imerina labour tax, requiring every able-bodied male to provide 50 days of unpaid labour per year. Head taxes were also imposed, under penalty of forced labour, in efforts to increase agricultural production and tax revenues. Roads were built and plantations established for European companies and settlers. Many villages were relocated along the new highways. Activities of Roman Catholic and Lutheran missionaries increased.
The harsh regime and disregard for Malagasy culture were met by a number of small revolts and raids, which culminated in a general uprising in 1904–1905. While the uprising was sparked in the north, the southeast had become fertile ground for revolution. Antanosy king king Befanatrika led rebels south into Anosy, and in December 1904 captured Esira, Fort Dauphin, and Manambaro, with widespread looting. While Protestants generally supported the uprising, Catholics opposed it and a number of Catholic churches were burned by the rebels. Following the revolt, the French closed the Lutheran schools and churches, believing them complicit. The region also suffered from smallpox and locusts during this time.
In 1926–27, the head tax was almost doubled and a three-year conscription system instituted to provide more labour for colony construction projects. The government also continued to seize lands for these projects, plantations, and French settlers.
During World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, Madagascar was the site of a 1942 campaign between Allied and Vichy French forces. The fighting was concentrated in the north and central regions; the Vichy governor-general had retreated steadily southward, and surrendered rather than enter Anosy. These incidents and the British occupation further tarnished the prestige of the French colonial government. Nationalist and pro-independence sentiments strengthened following the return of men forced into conscription, the continuation of forced labour, and the absence of reforms promised by Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free France, Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Re ...
. When the French government refused to support a democratic process toward Madagascar independence, militant independence leaders gained ground and initiated the Malagasy Uprising (1947–1949).
The uprising began in the east and was immediately followed by the south where it enjoyed particularly strong support and attracted as many as one million peasants to fight. The southern rebels were led by Betsileo former-teacher Michel Radaoroson. His leadership was usurped in August 1947 by Lehoaha, whose insurgents were better armed. The intensity and cruelty of the French response was unprecedented in French colonial history, and military records of the conflict were classified.
Madagascar Republic
Madagascar gained independence by referendum in 1958. Political power of the new government was consolidated amongst the Imerina middle-class, and was challenged in 1971 by a peasant uprising in Toliara Province (which included the Anosy Region). Sisal production in Anosy peaked in 1964 but rapidly declined thereafter. Periwinkle plantations began, as did exports of seaweed to Japan and live lobsters to Europe.
Student protests joined by a general strike and rioting led to a state of emergency, a military government fraught with ethnic coups, and the 1975 establishment of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. This second republic pursued socialist reforms with the aims of achieving rapid economic and cultural development. In the 1980s, the rapid growth of Fort-Dauphin created deforestation in Anosy, which became a high-priority area for international conservation efforts. The World Wildlife Fund began working in Andohahela National Park. Meanwhile, QIT-Fer et Titane established an office in Fort-Dauphin and began a joint venture to mine ilmenite.
Politically weakened by the dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...
, the socialist regime transitioned to the Third Republic of Madagascar in 1992. Ecotourism in Anosy grew rapidly in the early and mid-1990s, but temporarily collapsed during 2007–2009 due to the complete booking of Fort-Dauphin hotels for QMM employees and contractors.
Fort-Dauphin suffered a cholera outbreak in 2000–2001 and syphilis outbreak in 2007, the later resulting in a state of emergency. The World Bank named the town as one of three sites for its Integrated Growth Poles project. Port d'Ehola is completed in 2009, enabling QMM to export Ilmenite to Canada. In 2011, QMM takes over electricity production for Fort-Dauphin. Vigilantism rises in Anosy in response to banditry, with over 100 extralegal executions in 2012.
Geography
General references for the geography section: Vincelette et al. (2008) and is primarily about the immediate Fort-Dauphin region.
Anosy is a region in southeastern Madagascar
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the world's List of islands by area, f ...
, which covers . It borders Androy region to the southwest, across the Mandrare River. To the west is Atsimo-Andrefana, to the north is Ihorombe
Ihorombe is a region in Madagascar
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is ...
region, and to the northeast is Atsimo-Atsinanana region. To the east and south is the Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
. The region is approximately wide along its coastline and extends roughly inland. Anosy's capital and most-populous city is Tolagnaro (formerly Fort Dauphin), located about halfway along the region's coast and south of the national capital of Antananarivo
Antananarivo (Malagasy language, Malagasy: ; French language, French: ''Tananarive'', ), also known by its colonial shorthand form Tana (), is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Madagascar. The administrative area of the city, known ...
.[Institut National de la Statistique, Antananarivo.]
''Anosy'' means "island" or "islands" in Malagasy. It may have been named for the island in the Fanjahira river (now Efaho river) where the Zafiraminia first settled when they arrived in the 16th century. Another theory is that the name means "land of the islands" because of the many temporary islands created when the Efaho valley floods during the rainy season.
Along the ocean are coastal lagoon
A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by a narrow landform, such as reefs, barrier islands, barrier peninsulas, or isthmuses. Lagoons are commonly divided into ''coastal lagoons'' (or ''barrier lagoons'') an ...
s and about of sandy, rolling coastal hills that butt up against the Vohimana mountains. This mountain range dominates the area, terminating just outside Fort-Dauphin at Mount Bezavona (Pic St. Louis), which stands at .
The interior bedrock is granite
Granite ( ) is a coarse-grained (phanerite, phaneritic) intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly coo ...
, with cordierite
Cordierite (mineralogy) or iolite (gemology) is a magnesium iron aluminium cyclosilicate. Iron is almost always present, and a solid solution exists between Mg-rich cordierite and Fe-rich sekaninaite with a series formula: to . A high-tempera ...
gneiss
Gneiss (pronounced ) is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks. This rock is formed under p ...
exposed where erosion had occurred along the coast. The sand dunes along the coast, which average in depth, have mineral deposits of ilmenite, zircon
Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
, rutile
Rutile is an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer polymorphs of TiO2 are known, including anatase, akaogiite, and brookite.
Rutile has one of the highest refractive indices at vis ...
and monazite.
There are three primary hydrologic
Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydro ...
drainage areas in Anosy: the Mountain Zone, the Bedrock Plain, and the Coastal Sands. The Mountain Zone covers 30% of the total catchment area and is distinguished by steep slopes, rapid runoff, and clearly defined rivers. The Bedrock Plain has rolling hills with low relief and several large rivers. The Coastal Sands are dunes at the ocean's edge cut with meandering rivers, ribbon lakes, and a series of lagoons and bays which vary in size from a few to two dozen square kilometres. The Coastal Sands can be further subdivided into the Andriambe, Ebakika, Efaho, Fanjahira, Lakandava, Lanirano, Manampanihy, Mandromodromotra, Vatomena, Vatomirindry and Vatorendrika basins.
There are three major rivers in Anosy: the Mandrare River along the southwestern border, the Efaho (formerly called the Fanjahira) just west of Fort-Dauphin, and the Manampanihy which drains the Ranomafana valley, emptying into the ocean at Manantenina
Manantenina is a rural municipality in Madagascar. It belongs to the Districts of Madagascar, district of Taolanaro District, Taolanaro, which is a part of Anosy Region.
It is situated at the coast of the Indian Ocean at 107 km North of Fort-Daup ...
.[Hampel, Wolfgang. (n.d.). Stream sediment survey in South-Eastern Madagascar 2005–2006.]
/ref> Other rivers in the Anosy region include the Isoanala, Manambolo, Mangoky, Menarandra and Isoanala.
Climate
The average temperature in Fort-Dauphin ranges from in January–February to in July, with ocean temperatures ranging from in January–February to in June–July. The humidity of Fort-Dauphin ranges from 77 to 84 percent. Rainfall is highest on the eastern side of the mountains. In general, Anosy is very wet and humid in the northeast and becomes increasingly arid as one moves southwest.
Fort-Dauphin receives of annual rainfall. Monthly precipitation is about in November through March, ) in April, and less than for September and October. Fort-Dauphin is a windy town, with Force 6 winds () for 6 to 13 days per month, August through November. The region is occasionally damaged by cyclones, such as Cyclone Deborah in 1975, Cyclone Daisy in 1994, and Cyclone Gretelle in 1997.
Protected areas
* Kalambatritra Reserve
* Tsitongambarika New Protected Area
* Vohidava Betsimalaho New Protected Area
* Ambatotsirongorongo Special Reserve
* Angavo New Protected Area
* Andohahela National Park. In 1932, the Andohahela natural reserve was created.
* Ambatoatsinanana New Protected Area
* Petriky New Protected Area
* Mandena New Protected Area
* Ankodida New Protected Area
* the privately owned Berenty Reserve, near Amboasary Sud
In 1996, Anosy was recognized as one of the most ecologically diverse regions of Madagascar. In 2014, Fort-Dauphin coast was identified as seriously threatened due to rising sea levels, landslides, and coastal erosion".
Demographics
The region had a population of 809,313 in 2018. At its present growth rate, it is expected to double its population in 15 years. The region is administratively divided into three districts; population densities are in the Tolagnaro District, in the Amboasary Atsimo District, and in the Betroka District.
The people who have historically lived in Anosy are known as the Antanosy people. They may be more accurately described as "those from Anosy" given the region's history. The Antanosy live primarily in the east, along the coast and coastal rivers. There are also Antandroy living in the southwest, especially in the Tolagnaro District and in the Amboasary-Sud District, along with other Malagasy people
The Malagasy ( or ) are a group of Austronesian-speaking ethnic groups indigenous to the island country of Madagascar, formed through generations of interaction between Austronesians originally from southern Borneo and Bantus from Southeast ...
from other parts of Madagascar. The rural interior Betroka District is chiefly inhabited by Bara people. There are also Asians who own many shops in urban centres and Europeans working in conservation, mining, tourism or for the Catholic Church. While there had been many French nationals living in Anosy during the French occupation of Madagascar, most had left by the mid-1970s.
Most of the people who live in Anosy are very poor, with an estimated GDP per capita in 2004 of just $180, when the national average was $210. Eighty percent of its inhabitants don't have access to clean water
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. ...
, one in six suffer from serious respiratory illness, literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
is less than 20%, and 65% of the watershed slopes are highly degraded.[Di Boscio, N. (2010, March). ''Mining enterprises and regional economic development: An exploratory analysis of the sustainable development model.'' PhD Dissertation. London School of Economics and Political Science.]
The majority of those living in Anosy practice traditional folk religion
Folk religion, traditional religion, or vernacular religion comprises, according to religious studies and folkloristics, various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized religion. ...
s. The two largest Christian denominations in the Anosy region are the Roman Catholic
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
and the Malagasy Lutheran Church, both established in Fort Dauphin (also called: Tolagnaro) in the 1890s. The Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) has several congregations in the Anosy region as do several other Protestant denominations. There is also a small Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
community.
Administration, services and infrastructure
Administrative divisions
Anosy Region is divided into three districts, which are sub-divided into 64 communes.
* Amboasary Sud District - 14 communes
* Betroka District - 20 communes
* Taolanaro District[Ministere de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Peche. (2003, Juin). Monographie de la Region d'Anosy.](_blank)
- 24 communes
Education
As of 1997–98, literacy at the primary level in Anosy was 22% for boys and 23% for girls. Literacy was below 20% in some rural areas.
There are 511 public primary schools in the Anosy (2007–2008). 179 are in Amboasary Sud, 171 in Betroka and 161 in Taolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Not all of the villages dispose of a school.
There are 25 CEGs (college of general education) and 3 lycée
In France, secondary education is in two stages:
* ''Collèges'' () cater for the first four years of secondary education from the ages of 11 to 14.
* ''Lycées'' () provide a three-year course of further secondary education for students between ...
s, furthermore 1 technical lycée in Betroka.
Next to the public schools there were (2008): 68 private primary schools, 12 private colleges and 4 lycées (2 in Amboasary Sud and 2 in Taolagnaro).[Monographie Anosy](_blank)
/ref>
Healthcare
Healthcare is a challenge, as 80% of the population doesn't have access to clean water. In 2010, WHO
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has 6 regional offices and 15 ...
/UNICEF
UNICEF ( ), originally the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, officially United Nations Children's Fund since 1953, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing Humanitarianism, humanitarian and Development a ...
estimated that only 1 in 10 Malagasy had access to improved sanitation facilities, resulting in high child mortality. 40% of children in rural areas die before age 5.
Transportation
Fort-Dauphin is serviced by Air Madagascar, with daily flights to and from the national capital, Antananarivo
Antananarivo (Malagasy language, Malagasy: ; French language, French: ''Tananarive'', ), also known by its colonial shorthand form Tana (), is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Madagascar. The administrative area of the city, known ...
to the Tolagnaro Airport
Tolagnaro Airport (also known as Marillac Airport) is an airport in Fort-Dauphin (Madagascar), Anosy Region, Madagascar .
Airlines and destinations
International flights ceased in the 2020-2021 COVID crisis. However, on Nov 4, 2022 flights ...
.
Only 50% of roadways in Anosy were passable in 2009. Many roads are closed during the rainy season, and four-wheel drive
A four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a transfer case pr ...
is recommended. A paved road was built connecting Fort-Dauphin– Amboasary Sud– Ambovombe, but most of the surface has been wrecked. Some road repairs have been conducted with loans from the World Bank, and by international companies seeking access to the region's natural resources.
Buses run both north and west from Fort-Dauphin. Many are overcrowded and in poor repair, and some are simply trucks with metal benches.
Ehoala Port, opened in 2009, has greatly improved Anosy's shipping, and was developed for export of ilmenite
Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printi ...
.
Roads
* the National Road 12a, from Fort-Dauphin to Vangaindrano.
* the National Road 13, from Fort-Dauphin to Ambovombe and Ihosy.
* the Provincial road RIP118 (to the Andohahela National Park).
Airports
* Betroka Airport
*Tolagnaro Airport
Tolagnaro Airport (also known as Marillac Airport) is an airport in Fort-Dauphin (Madagascar), Anosy Region, Madagascar .
Airlines and destinations
International flights ceased in the 2020-2021 COVID crisis. However, on Nov 4, 2022 flights ...
Electrical infrastructure
The only towns in Anosy with electrical power grids are Port-Dauphin, Betroka and Amboasary Sud. The growth of Port-Dauphin and poor condition of its generators resulted in mining firm QIT Madagascar Minerals (QMM) assuming responsibility for production of the town's electricity.
As of 2008, rural electrification in Anosy was only 7%.
Agriculture
Subsistence farming
Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow crops on smallholdings to meet the needs of themselves and their families. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements. Planting decisions occ ...
is the primary source of income of most people living in Anosy. Where there is sufficient rainfall, rice
Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
is the primary food crop, though in most cases only one crop is grown per year. Cassava
''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
is a very important food crop for those who can't afford rice year-round, which includes most of the Malagasy in the region. Yields for most crops are low, primarily due to the traditional methods of farming.
Cash crops
The four major cash crop
A cash crop, also called profit crop, is an Agriculture, agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to differentiate a marketed crop from a staple crop ("subsi ...
s in the Anosy region are coffee
Coffee is a beverage brewed from roasted, ground coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content, but decaffeinated coffee is also commercially a ...
(primarily from the Ranomafana area), rosy periwinkle (southwestern coast of Anosy and coast of Androy), sisal
Sisal (, ; ''Agave sisalana'') is a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico, but widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a stiff fibre used in making rope and various other products. The sisal fiber is ...
(Amboasary area) and Peppercorn trees.
Malagasy rosy periwinkle was researched by Eli Lilly
Eli Lilly (July 8, 1838 – June 6, 1898) was a Union Army officer, pharmacist, chemist, and businessman who founded Eli Lilly and Company.
Lilly enlisted in the Union Army during the American Civil War and recruited a company of men to ...
beginning in 1958 for its potential use in preserving insulin
Insulin (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (''INS)'' gene. It is the main Anabolism, anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabol ...
. This was unsuccessful, but chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (list of chemotherapeutic agents, chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard chemotherapy re ...
agents were discovered which have been credited with increasing the survival rate for childhood leukemia
Leukemia ( also spelled leukaemia; pronounced ) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and produce high numbers of abnormal blood cells. These blood cells are not fully developed and are called ''blasts'' or '' ...
.
Sisal cultivation was tested in 1928 and intensive farming
Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of arable farming, crop plants and of Animal husbandry, animals, with higher levels ...
practices were begun in the 1950s, reaching peak production in the mid-1960s. The development of synthetic fibres has largely replaced it in the international market, but sisal remains an important export.
Peppercorn tree are produced around 280 t in the region of Ifarantsa.
Fishing
Income from fishing is estimated at between 3,000 and (MGA) in 2010, which was then US$1.50–2.50.
Mining
Mining has been occurring in Anosy beginning with the export of mica
Micas ( ) are a group of silicate minerals whose outstanding physical characteristic is that individual mica crystals can easily be split into fragile elastic plates. This characteristic is described as ''perfect basal cleavage''. Mica is co ...
in the early 1900s. Uranothorianite was mined from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, for several years being Madagascar's second-most valuable export. Sapphires were a major export in the early- to mid-1990s. More recently, Rio Tinto subsidiary owned QIT Madagascar Minerals (QMM), owned 80 percent by mining giant Rio Tinto Group
Rio Tinto Group is a British-Australian multinational company that is the world's second largest metals and mining corporation (behind BHP). It was founded in 1873 when a group of investors purchased a mine complex on the Río Tinto, in Hu ...
and 20 percent by the Malagasy government, has mined and exported 750,000 tons per year of ilmenite
Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printi ...
, along with 40,000 tons per year of rutile
Rutile is an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer polymorphs of TiO2 are known, including anatase, akaogiite, and brookite.
Rutile has one of the highest refractive indices at vis ...
and zircon
Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
. There are also major deposits of bauxite
Bauxite () is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium. Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite (), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)), and diaspore (α-AlO(OH) ...
which might be developed in the future, and there has been ongoing exploration for uranium and rare earth minerals.[Carter, J. (2010). The Integration of Ecological Data in a Minerals Assessment in Southeastern Madagascar. Presentation to The 3rd USGS Modeling Conference, 7–11 June 2010, Paper No. 11-7. National Wetlands Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Lafayette, LA 70506]
/ref>[
Mihalasky, M.J., Peters, S.G., Carter, J., Dillingham, W.S., Dobbin, J., Hammarstrom, J.M., Lampietti, F.M.J., Mack, T.J., Sutphin, D.M., Verstraeten I.M. & Mihalasky, F.I. (2006). Anosy Region Dynamic Spatial Analysis GIS, Identification of Three Areas Having Future Mineral Potential & Summary of Socioeconomic Planning (Version 1.1e) (DVD-ROM). For the project ''Study of the Future Impact of Minerals, Hydrology & Ecology on the Integrated Economic Development in the Anosy Region, Madagascar''. U.S. Geological Survey Administrative Report. The Projet de Gouvernance des Ressources Minérales and the World.][Stanley, M. & Harris, D. (2007?). ''Dynamic Mineral Resources Management: Anosy Case Study''. World Bank Oil, Gas, and Mining Policy Division.]
The 1986 opening of the QMM owned Mandena mine prompted a boost in employment, migration to the area, development of roads and exacerbation of deforestation. The mine contaminated Lake Besaroy in 2014-2015 and was met with mixed reactions from local communities, who held protests in 2013 and 2022.
Mica
Mica was discovered near Tranomaro in 1912, and can be found in crystalline schist
Schist ( ) is a medium-grained metamorphic rock generally derived from fine-grained sedimentary rock, like shale. It shows pronounced ''schistosity'' (named for the rock). This means that the rock is composed of mineral grains easily seen with a l ...
s from Fort-Dauphin to Ihosy. There were 50 different companies mining mica in 1947, but demand fell in 1963. The biggest mine is at Ampandandrava, about from Fort-Dauphin, which exported 1,000 tons of mica in 2010.
Uranium ores
Uranothorianite is a rich and highly radioactive ore of uranium. It was discovered by French surveyors in Anosy in 1953, and considered of great importance by the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). The locals called the dense black rocks ''vatovy'' and used them as slingshot ammunition and fishing weights. The CEA established a mining centre at Ambatomika, digging small open-pit mines. Between 1954 and 1963, almost 4,000 tonnes of uranothorianite was mined and exported to France. By 1964 this was Madagascar's second-most valuable export. In 1963, the original Ambindandrakemba mine was exhausted, and the centre was moved north to Betioky, near the Belafa ore body which was thought to have between 2,000 and 5,000 tons of uranothorianite. Mining ended in 1968, due to the degradation of equipment and the discovery of larger deposits in Gabon
Gabon ( ; ), officially the Gabonese Republic (), is a country on the Atlantic coast of Central Africa, on the equator, bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, the Republic of the Congo to the east and south, and ...
and Niger
Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...
.
In 2005, the Malagasy government conducted aerial magnetic and radiometric
Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to photometric techniques, which ch ...
surveys of the area, which found thorium and uranium deposits increased to the west. In 2007, drilling by the Canadian firm Pan African Mining Corporation found a site with "high-grade uranium mineralisation grading 4,329 ppm uranium", with deposits as deep as 60 metres. London-based Bekitoly Resources Ltd. acquired exploration rights which include eight of the historical open-pit deposits, and have conducted airborne radiometrics and hyperspectral surveys, ground radiometrics and magnetics, mapping, grab sampling, trenching and drilling. These activities identified numerous areas of interest, with uranium and thorium scintillometer readings of up to 26,257 and 43,215 ppm, respectively. They also discovered numerous rare-earth elements.
Titanium ores
Between 2009 and 2011, QMM has mined 750,000 tons of ilmenite
Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printi ...
(a titanium ore) per year for export to Canada. The ilmenite-mining operation also produces 25,000 tons of zircon
Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
and 15,000 tons of rutile
Rutile is an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer polymorphs of TiO2 are known, including anatase, akaogiite, and brookite.
Rutile has one of the highest refractive indices at vis ...
per year. It has the potential to increase production to 2 million tons of ilmenite per year, with an expected operational lifetime of 40 years. Almost $1 billion was spent developing this mine, including the new harbour at Port d'Ehola.
Semi-precious stones
Sapphire
Sapphire is a precious gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of aluminium oxide () with trace amounts of elements such as iron, titanium, cobalt, lead, chromium, vanadium, magnesium, boron, and silicon. The name ''sapphire ...
s were first documented in Anosy by Étienne de Flacourt in 1658, and were described by a French geologist working in the mica mines near Tranomaro in the 1950s. High-quality blue sapphires of up to were found near the village of Andranondambo in 1991, and in the mid-1990s briefly attracted a rush of almost 10,000 miners. A 2004 environmental impact study found the area "highly degraded" with threatened ecosystems.
Tourmaline
Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...
is a semi-precious gemstone which has been found near Ampasimainty, Ianakafy and Iankaroka, all south of Betroka. It has also been found near Behara and Tranomaro, which are both closer to Amboasary. A tourmaline crystal found near Tranomaro was sold for .
Unexploited mineral resources
Exploration studies have documented an estimated 100 million tons of bauxite
Bauxite () is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium. Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite (), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)), and diaspore (α-AlO(OH) ...
(an aluminium ore) in a area near Manantenina, north of Fort-Dauphin. It has not yet been mined, largely due to a lack of infrastructure in the area.
There are an estimated 310,000 tons of monazite, a reddish-brown phosphate
Phosphates are the naturally occurring form of the element phosphorus.
In chemistry, a phosphate is an anion, salt, functional group or ester derived from a phosphoric acid. It most commonly means orthophosphate, a derivative of orthop ...
mineral which contains rare earth metals, in the beach sands near Fort-Dauphin.
Tourism
Anosy has a high potential for tourism with its pleasant climate, sprawling beaches, and nature reserves with distinctive wildlife (several containing lemurs). Fort-Dauphin has a variety of hotels and has promoted itself as the "Malagasy Riviera" (). As with other industries, tourism has been limited by a lack of infrastructure. Popular places to visit include Evatraha, Libanona beach, Lokaro, Manafiafy, Nahampoana and Vinanibe.
There are a variety of tourist agencies in Antananarivo
and Fort-Dauphin.
References
Further reading
*
*
History
*Allibert, C. (ed.) 1997. Autour d'Étienne de Flacourt (Actes du Colloque d'Orléans). ''Etudes Océan Indien, 23/24''.
Aniruddha, R. (1979). French Colonial Policy in seventeenth century Madagascar: François Martin's Account, ''Archipel, 17''(17), 81–97.
*
Flacourt, E. de. (1661). ''Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar, composée par le Sieur de Flacourt, directeur general de la Compagnie Française de l’Orient, et commandant pour Sa Majesté dans la-dite isles et les isles adjacentes and Relation de la Grande Isle Madagascar contenant ce qui s'est passé entre les Français et les Originaires de cette Isle, depuis l’an 1642 jusques en l’an 1655, 1656, 1657''. Paris: Gervais Clouzier/Troyes: Nicolas Oudot.
*Flacourt, E. de. 1661 995
Year 995 (Roman numerals, CMXCV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Japan
* 17 May - Fujiwara no Michitaka (imperial regent) dies.
* 3 June: Fujiwara no Michikane gains power and becomes Rege ...
''Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar''. C. Allibert Ed. Paris: INALCO & Karthala.
Flacourt, Étienne de & Allibert, Claude. (2007). ''Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar''. Harmattan.
*
Froidevaux, Henri. (1919). Les premiers successeurs de Flacourt à Madagascar (Février 1655 – Janvier 1656). ''Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, 01-03'', 5–34.
*Guigue, Albert. (1916). Les Français dans l'Anosy, ''Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Françaises, IV'', 356–359.
*Guigue, Albert. (1917). La carrière coloniale de Mengaud de la Hage (1772–1777) ''Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Françaises, V3em Trimestre'', 257–330.
*Guigue, Albert. (1919). Un questionnaire sur le passe du Sud-Est de Madagascar, ''Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Françaises, VIII'', 303–305.
Malotet, Arthur. (1898). ''Etienne de Flacourt: Ou, les origines de la colonisation Francaise a Madagascar, 1648–1661''. Ernest Leroux: Paris.
*
*
*Rakotoarisoa, Jean-Aimé. (1994). Le peuplement de l’Anosy. Les rapports de l’homme et son environment dans l’extreme sud-est de Madagascar, Thése de l’Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientale, Paris.
Tantet. (1901–1902). Une excursion en pays Antanosy au XVIIIe Siecle. ''Revue Coloniale'', pp. 121–127.
Villars, Capitaine de (1912). ''Madagascar 1638–1894. Établissement des Français dans l'île''. Paris: L. Fournier.
*
Wright, H. et al. (1993). Evolution of settlement systems in the Efaho river valley, Anosy: A preliminary report on archaeological reconnaissances of 1983–1986. ''Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin, 12'', 2–20.
Wright, H.T. & Rakotoarisoa, J.A. (1997). The context of the Flacourt settlement: The archaeological evidence of the Anosy region. ''Etude Ocean Indien, 23–24'', 231–236.
Wright, H.T. & Rakotoarisoa, J.A. (2008). The archeological evidence of the Anosy Region.
* ttp://www.anthropologieenligne.com/pages/compagniesM.html n.a. (?). Les Compagnies de Commerce et la première colonisation de Madagascar. From AnthropologieEnLigne.comMaps
*
US Army Map Service. (1956). Anosy
US Army Map Service. (1967). Fort Dauphin Western coastal Anosy
US Army Map Service. (1967). Manantenina Northeastern Anosy
* including maps No. 12 Fort-Dauphin (eastern coast north of Fort-Dauphin) and No. 11 Ampanihy (which is actually a map of southern Madagascar, from Fort-Dauphin across to Toliary).
*
*
*
*
* ttp://purl.pt/3822/1/P1.html Mengaud de la Hage. (1777?). Carte de la cote Orientale de Madagascar.
*
*
*Plans de la baie du Fort Dauphin by Anonymous (17th century), Eberard, D. (1667), Bellin (1764) and Hage (1776).
Great Britain Hydrographic Department. (1891). ''Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, westward of long 80 east, including Madagascar'' (pp. 139-147).
External links
Regional office of Tourism - Anosy
{{Authority control
Regions of Madagascar