Grande_Mosquée_de_Kairouan,_vue_d'ensemble

Aghlabid architecture dates to the rule of the

Aghlabid dynasty The Aghlabids ( ar, الأغالبة) were an Arab dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim, who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sardinia, nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph, for about a cent ...

in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia) during the 9th century and the beginning of the 10th century. The dynasty ruled nominally on behalf of the

Abbasid Caliphs The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty, a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The family came t ...

, with which they shared many political and cultural connections. Their architecture was heavily influenced by older antique (

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD * Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...

and

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantin ...

) architecture in the region as well as by contemporary

Abbasid architecture Abbasid architecture developed in the Abbasid Caliphate between 750 and 1227, primarily in its heartland of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The great changes of the Abbasid era can be characterized as at the same time political, geo-political and cultur ...

in the east. The Aghlabid period is also distinguished by a relatively large number of monuments that have survived to the present day, a situation unusual for early

Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic ...

. One of the most important monuments of this period, the

Great Mosque of Kairouan The Great Mosque of Kairouan ( ar, جامع القيروان الأكبر), also known as the Mosque of Uqba (), is a mosque situated in the UNESCO World Heritage town of Kairouan, Tunisia and is one of the most impressive and largest Islamic mo ...

, was an important model for mosque architecture in the region. It features one of the oldest

minarets A minaret (; ar, منارة, translit=manāra, or ar, مِئْذَنة, translit=miʾḏana, links=no; tr, minare; fa, گل‌دسته, translit=goldaste) is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets are generally ...

and contains one of the oldest surviving mihrabs in Islamic architecture.

Historical background

The

Muslim conquest of North Africa The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb ( ar, الْفَتْحُ الإسلَامِيُّ لِلْمَغرِب) continued the century of rapid Muslim conquests following the death of Muhammad in 632 and into the Byzantine-controlled territories of ...

took place progressively during the 7th century. During this period, the city of

Kairouan Kairouan (, ), also spelled El Qayrawān or Kairwan ( ar, ٱلْقَيْرَوَان, al-Qayrawān , aeb, script=Latn, Qeirwān ), is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city was founded by t ...

was founded in 670 and served as the regional capital of the

Maghreb The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...

. The

, the city's

congregational mosque A congregational mosque or Friday mosque (, ''masjid jāmi‘'', or simply: , ''jāmi‘''; ), or sometimes great mosque or grand mosque (, ''jāmi‘ kabir''; ), is a mosque for hosting the Friday noon prayers known as '' jumu'ah''.* * * * * * * ...

, was also initially founded in 670. The

Abbasid revolution The Abbasid Revolution, also called the Movement of the Men of the Black Raiment, was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in early Islamic history, by the third, the Abbasid Caliphate ( ...

in 750 put the

in overall control of the Islamic empire, overthrowing the previous Umayyad Caliphs. In Ifriqiya, several rebellions and attacks on Kairouan, mainly from the

Kharijites The Kharijites (, singular ), also called al-Shurat (), were an Islamic sect which emerged during the First Fitna (656–661). The first Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle the ...

, had to be suppressed. In 800 the Abbasid caliph

Harun al-Rashid Abu Ja'far Harun ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi ( ar , أبو جعفر هارون ابن محمد المهدي) or Harun ibn al-Mahdi (; or 766 – 24 March 809), famously known as Harun al-Rashid ( ar, هَارُون الرَشِيد, translit=Hārūn ...

appointed

Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab ( ar, إبراهيم بن الأغلب; 756–812) was the first Emir of the Ifriqiya from Aghlabid family (800-812). Origin and early career He was the son of al-Aghlab, a Khurasani who had been a companion of Abu Musl ...

as governor of the entire Maghreb (in theory, the lands west of Egypt). He founded the

, who ruled Ifriqiya nominally on behalf of the

Baghdad Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesipho ...

but were ''de facto'' autonomous. In practice, their political power was mainly concentrated in the region of Ifriqiya. Under their rule, Kairouan grew into the major cultural and spiritual center of Sunni Muslims in the Maghreb. In 800, soon after establishing himself, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab founded a new capital and royal residence,

al-Abbasiyya Al-Abbasiyya ( ar, العباسية, al-Abbāsiyya, the Abbasid place), also known as Qasr al-Aghaliba (, 'the Aghlabid palaces') and al-Qasr al-Qadim (, 'the old palace'), was the first palace city and capital of the Aghlabid dynasty, which ruled ...

(named in honour of the Abbasids), outside Kairouan. It was built between 801 and 810, and included its own congregational mosque and palaces. Under the rule of

Ziyadat Allah I Abu Muhammad Ziyadat Allah I ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab ( ar, زيادة الله الأول) (died June 10, 838) was the Emir in Ifriqiya from 817 until his death in 838. Abu Muhammad Ziyadat Allah I succeeded his brother Abdallah I (812–817 ...

(r. 817–838), one of the most competent rulers of the dynasty, the Aghlabids embarked on a campaign of conquests in the central

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on th ...

, including the

conquest of Sicily Conquest is the act of military wiktionary:subjugation, subjugation of an enemy by force of Weapon, arms. Military history provides many examples of conquest: the Roman conquest of Britain, the Mauryan conquest of Afghanistan and of vast area ...

(starting in 827), the conquest of Malta (870), and expeditions to the Italian mainland (mostly in the 830s and 840s). In 876 Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad moved the royal residence from al-Abbasiya to a new palace-city he founded, named

Raqqada Raqqāda ( ar, رقّادة) is the site of the second capital of the 9th-century dynasty of Aghlabids, located about ten kilometers southwest of Kairouan, Tunisia. The site now houses the National Museum of Islamic Art. History In 876, the ni ...

, again near Kairouan. The city contained a mosque,

baths Bath may refer to: * Bathing, immersion in a fluid ** Bathtub, a large open container for water, in which a person may wash their body ** Public bathing, a public place where people bathe * Thermae, ancient Roman public bathing facilities Plac ...

, market, and several palaces. Ibrahim II resided in a palace called ''Qaṣr al-Fatḥ'' (), which remained the residence of his successors (except for some periods where they moved to Tunis). Aghlabid rule began to weaken by the end of the 9th century and in 909 they were finally overthrown by a

Kutama The Kutama ( Berber: ''Ikutamen''; ar, كتامة) was a Berber tribe in northern Algeria classified among the Berber confederation of the Bavares. The Kutama are attested much earlier, in the form ''Koidamousii'' by the Greek geographer Ptolemy ...

army led by

Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i Al-Husayn ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Zakariyya, better known as Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i ( ar, ابو عبد الله الشيعي, Abū ʿAbd Allāh ash-Shi'ī), was an Isma'ili missionary (''dāʿī'') active in Yemen and North Africa, mainly among ...

, establishing the new Fatimid Caliphate with Ifriqiya as its heartland.

General characteristics

A Driving Tour of Kairouan, Tunisia (7042903885)

The century of Aghlabid rule saw a degree of political stability and continuity that allowed architectural patronage to flourish. The relatively large number of surviving monuments from this period in one region is unusual for this era of Islamic architecture, allowing for a more detailed study their architectural development. Aghlabid architecture remained heavily influenced by the traditions of Antiquity, evidenced by the continuing extensive use of stone and some associated decorative techniques. The ruins of Roman Africa were also frequently reused as a source of building materials, particularly for marble and cut stone. The Aghlabids' connection to the Abbasids in Baghdad also meant that they imported or adopted the latest techniques from the metropolitan Abbasid style in Iraq, as seen in the luster-painted

tiles Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, walls, edges, or o ...

of the ''

mihrab Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the '' qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla ...

'' in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, the carved stucco decoration in Raqqada, and the stone-carving of the Mosque of Ibn Khayrun. Arabic inscriptions carved in

Kufic Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts. It ...

script were sparsely but widely used in decoration as well. Former Christians, converted to Islam, played a central role in the field of architecture in 9th century Ifriqiya. Some of them were freed slaves who continued to serve their former masters, known as ''

mawali Mawlā ( ar, مَوْلَى, plural ''mawālī'' ()), is a polysemous Arabic word, whose meaning varied in different periods and contexts.A.J. Wensinck, Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Mawlā", vol. 6, p. 874. Before the Islamic prophet ...

'', often serving as supervisors in the construction projects sponsored by their masters.

Ribats and fortifications

The threat of

attacks by sea encouraged the construction of forts and fortifications along the coast of Ifriqiya. Ribats were roughly square or rectangular fortified enclosures with interior courtyards surrounded by chambers and communal rooms. They served residential fortresses, simultaneously a defensive structure and a kind of Muslim monastery where pious warriors gathered for ''

jihad Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...

''. They were built at regular intervals along the coast. Many examples are found along the Tunisian coastal areas, but the

Ribat of Sousse Ribat of Sousse () is a ribat in the city of Sousse, Tunisia. Although scholars differ on the chronology of its original construction, it was most likely founded in the 8th century and reconstructed or completed in its current form during the earl ...

and the

Ribat of Monastir The Ribat of Monastir ( ar, رباط المنستير) is a ribat, an Islamic defensive structure, located in Monastir, Tunisia. It is the oldest ribat built by the Arab conquerors during the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. They are dated to the late 8th century (slightly prior to the Aghlabid period), making them the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in Tunisia – although they were both subjected to later modifications. The Ribat of Monastir was founded in 796 by the Abbasid governor

Harthama ibn A'yan Harthama ibn A'yan (; died June 816) was a Khurasan-born general and governor of the early Abbasid Caliphate, serving under the caliphs al-Hadi, Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun. He played an important role in the victory of al-Ma'mun in the Abbasi ...

, but it has gone through multiple modifications, restorations, and expansions, making the chronology of its construction difficult to outline. It gained prestige over time as a teaching place, as a religious retreat, and as a burial place. The Ribat of

Sousse Sousse or Soussa ( ar, سوسة, ; Berber:''Susa'') is a city in Tunisia, capital of the Sousse Governorate. Located south of the capital Tunis, the city has 271,428 inhabitants (2014). Sousse is in the central-east of the country, on the Gu ...

, erected during the tenure of the Abbasid governor

Yazid ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi Yazid ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi ( ar, يزيد بن حاتم المهلبي) (died March 13, 787) was a member of the Muhallabid family who served as the governor of Adharbayjan, Egypt (762–769) and Ifriqiya (771–787) for the Abbasid Caliphate. ...

(d. 787), is built of stone and consists of a square walled enclosure measuring around 38 meters long and 11 meters high. Round towers reinforce its corners and the middle of its of its four sides, except for the southeastern corner, where a square tower serves as the base for a tall cylindrical tower on top of it, and the middle south side, where a projecting rectangular salient serves as the entrance gate. The gate entrance is framed by reused ancient columns. Inside the gate are narrow openings for a former portcullis and for defenders to drop projectiles or boiling oil on attackers. Guardrooms were connected to the vestibule. The gate leads to the courtyard, which is flanked by arcades on each side, behind which are lines of small rooms and an upper floor. On the south side of this upper floor is a

vaulted In architecture, a vault (French ''voûte'', from Italian ''volta'') is a self-supporting arched form, usually of stone or brick, serving to cover a space with a ceiling or roof. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while ring ...

room with a ''

'' (niche symbolizing the

direction of prayer Prayer in a certain direction is characteristic of many world religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baháʼí Faith. Judaism Jews traditionally pray in the direction of Jerusalem, where the "presence of the transcendent God ...

) which is the oldest preserved mosque or prayer hall in North Africa. Another small room in the fortress, located above the gate, contains another mihrab and is covered by a

dome A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a ...

supported on

squinches In architecture, a squinch is a triangular corner that supports the base of a dome. Its visual purpose is to translate a rectangle into an octagon. See also: pendentive. Construction A squinch is typically formed by a masonry arch that spans ...

. This is the oldest example of a dome with squinches in Islamic North Africa. The cylindrical tower above the southeast corner was most likely intended as a lighthouse. It can be ascended via a spiral staircase inside. It has a marble plaque over its entrance inscribed with the name of Ziyadat Allah I and the date 821, which is the oldest Islamic-era monumental inscription to survive in Tunisia. This date has been interpreted by some scholars as the foundation date of the whole ribat rather than the construction date of the tower only, which would make the building slightly less old than the one at Monastir. The old city of Sousse has also preserved some of its defensive walls, which a surviving inscription dates to 859. The walls are built of stone, which is common for buildings in this city, but city walls elsewhere in the Maghreb were usually built in

rammed earth Rammed earth is a technique for constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a sustainable building method ...

or brick. The walls are topped by rounded crenellations following the Byzantine tradition. At the southwestern corner of the walls is the

Kasbah A kasbah (, also ; ar, قَـصَـبَـة, qaṣaba, lit=fortress, , Maghrebi Arabic: ), also spelled qasba, qasaba, or casbah, is a fortress, most commonly the citadel or fortified quarter of a city. It is also equivalent to the term ''alca ...

or citadel, which was first built in 850 under the reign of Abu al-Abbas Muhammad (r. 841–856) but rebuilt many times since then. At the Kasbah's southwest corner is a much taller tower known as the tower of Khalaf al-Fata, named after a freed slave and state official who served Ziyadat Allah I and who supervised the construction. It was constructed around the time of the Kasbah's foundation. This tower also probably served as a lighthouse or signal tower. It is 13 meters tall, but as it is built on an elevated site its summit stands 77 meters above sea level, making it visible from afar and giving it commanding views over the area. The tower consists of two cuboid sections stacked on top of each other, whose interiors are occupied by four rooms. The room on the second floor has a small mihrab, indicating that it served as a prayer room for the soldiers garrisoning it.

Mosques

Great Mosque of Kairouan

One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt in 836 by the emir Ziyadat Allah I, although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction. Aside from Ziyadat Allah I's construction, it seems another campaign of repairs and renovations took place under Abu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863). The mosque's design was a major reference point in the architectural history of mosques in the Maghreb. The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-story

minaret A minaret (; ar, منارة, translit=manāra, or ar, مِئْذَنة, translit=miʾḏana, links=no; tr, minare; fa, گل‌دسته, translit=goldaste) is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets are generally ...

. The prayer hall is divided into 17 aisles or naves by rows of arches, with a transverse aisle on the south side running along the ''

qibla The qibla ( ar, قِبْلَة, links=no, lit=direction, translit=qiblah) is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the s ...

'' wall, perpendicular to the others. The columns are fashioned from different kinds of marble, granite, and porphyry, while their capitals have varying designs, indicating that they were spoliated from many different older structures. The prayer hall's also layout reflects an early use of the so-called "T-plan", as the central nave (the one leading to the mihrab) and the transverse aisle along the ''qibla'' wall are wider than the other aisles and they both intersect in front of the mihrab. The entrance to the central nave from the courtyard is fronted by a high dome called the ''Qubbat al-Bahw'' (or ''Qubbat al-Bahu''; meaning "Dome of the Vestibule" or "Dome of the Covered Gallery"). The mihrab is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-

relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...

vegetal motifs and with ceramic

with

overglaze Overglaze decoration, overglaze enamelling or on-glaze decoration is a method of decorating pottery, most often porcelain, where the coloured decoration is applied on top of the already fired and glazed surface, and then fixed in a second firing ...

and luster. Next to the mihrab is the oldest surviving ''

minbar A minbar (; sometimes romanized as ''mimber'') is a pulpit in a mosque where the imam (leader of prayers) stands to deliver sermons (, '' khutbah''). It is also used in other similar contexts, such as in a Hussainiya where the speaker sits and ...

'' (pulpit) in the world, made of richly-carved

teakwood Teak (''Tectona grandis'') is a tropical hardwood tree species in the family Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests. ''Tectona grandis'' has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters (panicl ...

panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid

Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...

. An elegant dome in front of the mihrab with an elaborately-decorated drum is one of architectural highlights of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome's drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze of blind arches, squinches carved in the shape of shells, and various motifs carved in low-relief. The dome, along with the galleries around the courtyard, the minbar, and the tiles of the mihrab are dated to Abu Ibrahim Ahmad's intervention in the mosque. It was under Abbasid rule in that the first known tower minarets appeared. According to art historian

Jonathan Bloom Jonathan Max Bloom (born April 7, 1950) is an American art historian and educator. Bloom has served as the dual Norma Jean Calderwood University Professor of Islamic and Asian Art at Boston College, along with his wife, Sheila Blair. Career Bl ...

, the early Abbasid minarets were not built to host the

call to prayer A call to prayer is a summons for participants of a faith to attend a group worship or to begin a required set of prayers. The call is one of the earliest forms of telecommunication, communicating to people across great distances. All religions ...

but were instead intended as prominent landmarks symbolizing the presence of Islam alongside, suitable for major congregational mosques. Their function as a platform for the muezzin and the call to prayer only developed later. As the first minaret towers were an innovation introduced by the Abbasids, they were symbolically associated with Abbasid power. The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which came from the Aghlabid reconstruction, is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and the western Islamic world, and one of the oldest in the world. It consists of a massive square-based tower, 10.5 meters wide at the base and tapering towards the top of its 18.5 meters-tall shaft. This main section is surmounted by a second square tier, which in turn is topped by a third domed section (the latter being reconstructed at a later period). The tower's form was likely modeled on older Roman lighthouses in North Africa, quite possibly the lighthouse at

Salakta Salakta is a small Tunisian village situated by the sea. Salakta has been occupied or ruled by many civilisations, including the Phoenicians, Byzantines, Romans, and Muslim Oubéidines. The attractions include a beach, catacombs, an ancient cem ...

(Sullecthum) in particular. File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan 49.jpg, Courtyard of the mosque, looking north to the minaret File:Coupole dans la grande Mosquée de Kairouan 02, juin 2013.jpg, Courtyard façade of the prayer hall File:Nef centrale de la salle de prière, Grande Mosquée de Kairouan.jpg, Prayer hall, central nave leading to the ''

'' File:La salle de prière de la Grande Mosquée de Kairouan.JPG, Prayer hall, transversal view of the rows of arches and columns File:Vue du mihrab dans la salle de prière de la Grande Mosquée de Kairouan.jpg, View of the mihrab area File:Détails du Mihrab 38.jpg, Detail of the mihrab, showing the square luster tiles around the upper section File:Mihrab Qairawan.JPG, Detail of the carved marble panels inside the mihrab File:Great Mosque of Kairouan, the main dome (mihrab dome).jpg, The dome in front of the mihrab File:Minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia.jpg, The minret

Other congregational mosques

The Great Mosque of al-Zaytuna in

Tunis ''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois , population_note = , population_urban = , population_metro = 2658816 , population_density_km2 = , timezone1 = CET , utc_offset1 ...

, which was founded earlier around 698, owes its overall current form to a reconstruction during the reign of the Aghlabid emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863). Its layout is very similar to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Two other congregational mosques in Tunisia, the

Great Mosque of Sfax The Great Mosque of Sfax ( ar, الجامع الكبير بصفاقس) is the first mosque established in the historic city of Sfax, Tunisia. It dates back to the same year of the construction of the city wall which is in 849. It was built durin ...

(circa 849) and the

Great Mosque of Sousse The Great Mosque of Sousse ( ar, الجامع الكبير بسوسة) is a historical mosque in the coastal city of Sousse, Tunisia. The construction dates back to 851 during the rule of Aghlabid Dynasty, a vassal of the Abbasid Caliphate, and ...

(851), were also built by the Aghlabids but have quite different forms. The congregational mosque of al-Abbasiya is described by

al-Baladhuri ʾAḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jābir al-Balādhurī ( ar, أحمد بن يحيى بن جابر البلاذري) was a 9th-century Muslim historian. One of the eminent Middle Eastern historians of his age, he spent most of his life in Baghdad and ...

(d. 892) as measuring 200 by 200

cubits The cubit is an ancient unit of length based on the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was primarily associated with the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. The term ''cubit'' is found in the Bible regarding No ...

, constructed of brick and marble columns, with a cedarwood roof. The description resembles that of the congregational mosque in Baghdad at the time, which may mean that either the Aghlabid mosque was inspired by it or that the description itself is merely a formulaic one.

Small mosques

Mosquée_des_Trois_Portes_3_(lightened_and_cropped)

The small Mosque of Ibn Khayrun in Kairouan (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors"), dated to 866 and commissioned by a private patron, possesses what is considered by some to be the oldest decorated external façade in

, featuring carved

inscriptions and vegetal motifs. Apart from its limestone façade, most of the mosque was rebuilt at a later period. Another small local mosque from this period is the Mosque of Bu Fatata in Sousse, dated to the reign of

Abu Iqal al-Aghlab ibn Ibrahim Abu Iqal al-Aghlab ibn Ibrahim () was the fourth Aghlabid The Aghlabids ( ar, الأغالبة) were an Arab dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim, who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sardi ...

(r. 838–841), which has a hypostyle prayer hall fronted by an external

portico A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many c ...

of three arches. Both the Ibn Khayrun and Bu Fatata mosques are early examples of the "nine-bay" mosque, meaning that the interior has a square plan subdivided into nine smaller square spaces, usually vaulted, arranged in three rows of three. This type of layout is found later in al-Andalus and as far as Central Asia, suggesting that it may be a design that was disseminated widely by Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca.

Palaces

Al-Abbasiya

Little remains or is known about the Aghlabid royal residence at al-Abbasiya. Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab's palace was known as ''ar-Rusafa'', a toponym which may have been associated with a particular kind of garden estate. This same name was given to country estates in earlier in Umayyad Syria and in later in Umayyad al-Andalus. Al-Abbasiya also had a congregational mosque, a market, and another palace named ''Qaṣr al-Abyad'' ("White Palace"), making it essentially its own city.

Raqqada

Of the later royal city and residence of Raqqada, some remains have been partially excavated. It was located 4 kilometers south of Kairouan and remains have been found across a site of approximately 9 square kilometers, suggesting that the city grew fairly large. Fragments of carved stucco decoration similar to that of

Abbasid Samarra Samarra is a city in central Iraq, which served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate from 836 to 892. Founded by the caliph al-Mu'tasim, Samarra was briefly a major metropolis that stretched dozens of kilometers along the east bank of the Tigr ...

have been found at the site. Only one palace building has been investigated by archeologists. It was built of

mudbrick A mudbrick or mud-brick is an air-dried brick, made of a mixture of loam, mud, sand and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. Mudbricks are known from 9000 BCE, though since 4000 BCE, bricks have also been ...

and went through multiple phases of construction and expansion. It was first constructed as a roughly square walled enclosure, measuring 55 by 55 meters, whose exterior was reinforced with round towers or buttresses. Buttressed walls like this were a feature of Roman ''

castrum In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, the Latin word ''castrum'', plural ''castra'', was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form ''castrum'' meant 'fort', while the plural form ''castra'' meant 'camp'. The singular and ...

'' architecture and were also found in early Islamic architecture. The building had a central rectangular courtyard surrounded by rooms, including a large reception room in the middle of the north side. Judging by its layout, this building may correspond to what historical sources refer to as the ''Qaṣr aṣ-Ṣaḥn'' ("Courtyard Palace"). The building was entered from the south via a

bent entrance A bent or indirect entrance is a defensive feature in medieval fortification.Adrian Boas, On a Necessary Vulnerability, https://www.adrianjboas.com/post/on-a-necessary-vulnerability In a castle with a bent entrance, the gate passage is narrow and ...

(a passage turning 90 degrees twice), a feature which became common in the Abbasid period as both a defensive measure and as a means to preserve the privacy of the inhabitants inside. The entrance led directly into the courtyard. A cistern existed under the center of the courtyard where rainwater was collected and stored for future use. The reception room to the north, roughly square in shape, was divided into three north-to-south naves by two rows of four columns. A small

apse In architecture, an apse (plural apses; from Latin 'arch, vault' from Ancient Greek 'arch'; sometimes written apsis, plural apsides) is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome, also known as an '' exedra''. ...

or semi-circular niche at the back of the hall probably marked the location of the emir's seat or throne. This type of basilical columned hall became a recurring feature of palatial architecture in the western Islamic world. In a later building phase, this palace enclosure was expanded to the north and west until it measured 105 by 105 meters. The additional space was filled with living quarters. The interior underwent further reorganization later during the Fatimid and Zirid occupations of the site. This courtyard palace was surrounded by a residential district and many other structures. To its northeast was a large irregular quadrilateral water basin measuring between 90 and 130 meters wide. It likely functioned as a reservoir for the royal city's water supply, but it may have also been integrated into the architectural landscape of the palaces. Of the other palaces mentioned in historical sources, one was the ''Qaṣr aṣ-Baḥr'' ("Water Palace" or "Palace of the Sea"), which would indicate a palace associated with a large water basin. This palace has not yet been found at Raqqada, but there is evidence of structures existing next to the aforementioned quadrilateral water basin. Large bodies of water would have played an aesthetic role by reflecting the images of adjoining buildings and giving them a lighter appearance. The ''Qaṣr aṣ-Baḥr'' at Raqqada is the earliest example of such a "water palace" in the Mediterranean region, with later examples found at the Fatimid capital al-Mansuriyya and the

Hammadid The Hammadid dynasty () was a branch of the Sanhaja Berber dynasty that ruled an area roughly corresponding to north-eastern modern Algeria between 1008 and 1152. The state reached its peak under Nasir ibn Alnas during which it was briefly the m ...

capital

Qal'at Bani Hammad Qal'at Bani Hammad ( ar, قلعة بني حماد), also known as Qal'a Bani Hammad or Qal'at of the Beni Hammad (among other variants), is a fortified palatine city in Algeria. Now in ruins, in the 11th century, it served as the first capital o ...

. It may have been inspired by the palaces of Abbasid Samarra, where a large pool existed in front of the ''Bab al-'Amma'' gate, and it probably had its origins in older

Sassanian The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

palace architecture, such as '' Qaṣr e-Shirin'' in Iran. A third named palace, the ''Qaṣr al-Fatḥ'' ("Palace of Victory"), was the residence of emir Ibrahim II, but its location is unknown.

Civic works

The Aghlabids also extensively built up infrastructure and other buildings with civic purposes. Historical texts indicate that numerous built

hammams A hammam ( ar, حمّام, translit=ḥammām, tr, hamam) or Turkish bath is a type of steam bath or a place of public bathing associated with the Islamic world. It is a prominent feature in the culture of the Muslim world and was inherited f ...

(

public baths Public baths originated when most people in population centers did not have access to private bathing facilities. Though termed "public", they have often been restricted according to gender, religious affiliation, personal membership, and other cr ...

caravanserais A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was a roadside inn where travelers ( caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade routes covering ...

, and maristans (hospitals or asylums), though these have not survived. They built many bridges over rivers, two of which survive near Kairouan and

Hergla Hergla ( ar, هرقلة) is a small cliff-top town in north-eastern Tunisia at the Gulf of Hammamet. White houses of Hergla with often blue window and door surroundings are built in the classic style characteristic for Tunisia. Sousse is about 24 ...

Water infrastructure

The Aghlabids constructed extensive waterworks to provide water to Kairouan and their nearby palatial complexes, which are located in a dry and arid region. Water was collected in a series of large reservoirs, two of which survive today outside the walls of Kairouan, known as the

Aghlabid Basins The Aghlabid Basins or Aghlabid Reservoirs are a series of historic water reservoirs and hydraulic works in Kairouan, Tunisia. They were built under Aghlabid rule in the 9th century to supply the city with water. Historical background Kairouan, ...

. During the Aghlabid period, water was brought to the city and the reservoirs from the surrounding lowlands by drawing it from

Oued Merguellil Oued Merguellil (وادي مرق الليل) is a stream in central Tunisia that flows via Sebkhet Cherita Lake, into the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Hammamet. Oued Merguellil is found at 35° 50′ 34″ N, 10° 16′ 18″ E in central Tunisia ...

and its

tributaries A tributary, or affluent, is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem (or parent) river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean. Tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainage ...

. The waters were diverted by a system of small dams, weirs, and canals to the reservoirs. An aqueduct was also built to bring water from springs in the Shreshira (or Chrechira) Mountains, 36 kilometres west of Kairouan. The aqueduct was probably built during the Aghlabid period, but made use of some existing Roman-era infrastructure and was subsequently renovated during the Fatimid period. The two surviving Aghlabid reservoirs of Kairouan, built between 860 and 862, are each composed of two large circular basins that acted as settling tanks, which in turn led filled a covered cistern. In the middle of the largest water basin is a polylobed masonry pillar today which may have been part of the foundations of a leisure pavilion that stood above the water. Raqqada itself was also supplied by large above-ground square reservoirs whose walls were reinforced with round towers.

Maristans (hospitals)

The first known maristan built in present-day Tunisia was built by Ziyadat Allah I between 825 and 835 in the Dimma neighbourhood of Kairouan. This maristan became the model for other maristans built later in Tunis, Sfax, and Sousse. The first maristan of Tunis was founded circa 903, located outside the city walls. The usual layout for these buildings had a central courtyard surrounded by an arcaded gallery leading to many rooms. The entrance was through a covered passage (a ''skifa'') on the central axis of the courtyard. Along this passage were benches for visitors coming to see patients, as well as rooms for the guards. Across the courtyard from the entrance was usually a prayer room. From the courtyard one could also access an isolated section reserved for patients with leprosy. Maristans were often equipped with their own cistern and well to provide water.

References

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