The New 36th Division was a cavalry division in the
National Revolutionary Army
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; ), sometimes shortened to Revolutionary Army () before 1928, and as National Army () after 1928, was the military arm of the Kuomintang (KMT, or the Chinese Nationalist Party) from 1925 until 1947 in China ...
. It was created in 1932 by the
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Ta ...
for General
Ma Zhongying, who was also its first commander. It was made almost entirely out of
Hui Muslim troops, all of its officers were Hui, with a few thousand
Uighurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghu ...
forced conscripts in the rank and file. It was commonly referred to as the "KMT 36th Division", or "Tungan 36th Division".
Original organization
General
Ma Zhongying, a Muslim who had trained under
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
at
Whampoa Military Academy
The Republic of China Military Academy () is the service academy for the army of the Republic of China, located in Fengshan District, Kaohsiung. Previously known as the the military academy produced commanders who fought in many of China ...
in
Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and t ...
in 1929, was the new 36th Division commander.
Kamal Kaya Efendi
Kamal Kaya Efendi, also known as Kemal Kaya Effendi (Ottoman Turkish: كمال کایا افندﻯ; ), was an Ottoman Turk who may have been a Soviet agent. He studied in Germany and Paris, and fought under Von Epp in the Caucasus during World War ...
, a Turk and a former
Ottoman military officer was chief-of-staff to
Ma Zhongying. The 1st Brigade was commanded by General
Ma Ju-lung. The 2nd Brigade was commanded by General
Ma Sheng-kuei
Ma Sheng-kuei (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. His grew up in Gansu and Shaanxi in "bad company". Ma practiced banditry was n ...
.
Cavalry regiments were divided into 2,000 men each, by horse color, black, brown, or white.
Infantry then followed cavalry.
Su Chin-shou
Su Chin-shou was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the Chief of Staff of General Ma Zhancang and was appointed as one of the two tao-yins of ...
was General Ma Zhancang's chief of staff.
Pai Tzu-li
Pai Tzu-li () was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the secretary to Ma Zhongying and his age was estimated to be about 40. He was then Chi ...
was another commander in the new 36th division.
An unnamed new 36th division general was encountered by
Peter Fleming.
Ma Hushan
Ma Hu-shan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hushān; 1910 – 1954) was a Hui (Chinese Muslim) warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of ...
was original Deputy Divisional Commander, then promoted to Chief of the new 36th division.
Equipment
Primary equipment consisted of
Dadao Dadao, formerly romanized ta-tao, may refer to:
* ''dadao'' (, p ''dàdāo'', ), a machete-like variety of the dao (sword)
** "The Sword March
"The Sword March" is a Chinese music, Chinese patriotic song first sung in the Republic of Chi ...
swords, bolt-action
Lee–Enfield
The Lee–Enfield or Enfield is a bolt-action, magazine-fed repeating rifle that served as the main firearm of the military forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth during the first half of the 20th century, and was the British Army's sta ...
rifles, captured Soviet rifles, machine guns, and light cannons.
Soviet rifles marked with 1930 dates were seized by Chinese Muslim soldiers from Russians during the
Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang as war booty.
Uniform and Insignia
Ma Zhancang's troops wore green uniforms. Many of the troops wore
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Ta ...
Blue Sky with a White Sun
The Blue Sky with a White Sun () serves as the design for the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang, the canton of the flag of the Republic of China, the national emblem of the Republic of China, and as the naval jack of the ROC Navy.
In th ...
armbands, and used
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Ta ...
Blue Sky with a White Sun
The Blue Sky with a White Sun () serves as the design for the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang, the canton of the flag of the Republic of China, the national emblem of the Republic of China, and as the naval jack of the ROC Navy.
In th ...
banners.
Training
Ma Zhongying made his men train in subzero temperatures, and they used shadow fencing to train and parallel bars for exercise. Ma Hushan forced his men to drill every day, conducting siege maneuvers and cavalry attacks. Peter Flemings said "I have never seen troops in China train so hard."
It is documented that troops sang Chinese Muslim marching songs; Ma Zhongying himself had a
harmonium
The pump organ is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound as air flows past a vibrating piece of thin metal in a frame. The piece of metal is called a reed. Specific types of pump organ include the reed organ, harmonium, and melodeon. Th ...
with him and spent hours playing Muslim hymns on it. He also kept
Mauser
Mauser, originally Königlich Württembergische Gewehrfabrik ("Royal Württemberg Rifle Factory"), was a German arms manufacturer. Their line of bolt-action rifles and semi-automatic pistols has been produced since the 1870s for the German arm ...
pistols. Ma Zhongying cited as his role models
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
,
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader wh ...
,
Bismarck,
Hindenburg, and
Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang, Marquis Kejing ( also spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang; ; November 10, 1812 – September 5, 1885), sometimes referred to as General Tso, was a Chinese statesman and military leader of the late Qing dynasty.
Born in Xiangyin County, ...
.
Recruitment Tactics
Xinjiang War
Kizil massacre
Uighur and
Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
and
Chinese Muslim
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. Muslims are a minority group in China, representing 1.6-2 percent of the total population (21,667,000- 28,210,795) according to various estimates. Though Hui Muslims are the most num ...
soldiers from
Kashgar
Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. ...
.
Battle of Aksu
A minor battle in which
Chinese Muslim
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. Muslims are a minority group in China, representing 1.6-2 percent of the total population (21,667,000- 28,210,795) according to various estimates. Though Hui Muslims are the most num ...
troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of
Xinjiang
Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwes ...
by
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central Asia, Cent ...
when they rose up in revolt.
Battle of Sekes Tash
A minor battle when
Chinese Muslim
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. Muslims are a minority group in China, representing 1.6-2 percent of the total population (21,667,000- 28,210,795) according to various estimates. Though Hui Muslims are the most num ...
troops under general
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
attacked and inflicted a defeat upon
Uyghur and
Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uyghur and Kirghiz were killed.
Battle of Kashgar (1933)
Uyghur and
Kirghiz forces led by the Bughra brothers and
Tawfiq Bay
Tawfiq Bay, or Sayyid Ahmad Tawfiq Bay Sharif Efendi (Tevfik Pasha), ( ar, سيد احمد توفيق باي شريف أفندي; ) was a Syrian Arab traveler who had been in the service of King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, eventually traveling to ...
attempted to take the city of
Kashgar
Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. ...
from Chinese Muslim troops under General
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
. They were defeated.
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the new 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
Battle of Urumqi
The new 36th division twice (
First Battle of Urumqi and
Second Battle of Urumqi) attempted to take the city of
Urumqi, the second time, they were joined by a
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
army under
Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan (traditional Chinese: 張培元) ( – 1 June 1934) was a Han chinese general, commander of the Ili garrison. He fought against Uighur and Tungans during the Kumul revolt, but then secretly negotiated with the Tungan genera ...
.
Battle of Tutung
In 1934, 2 brigades of Soviet
Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie
The State Political Directorate (also translated as the State Political Administration) (GPU) was the intelligence service and secret police of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) from February 6, 1922, to December 29, 1922, ...
(GPU) troops of about 7,000 backed by tanks, planes, and artillery with
mustard gas
Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is a chemical compound belonging to a family of cytotoxic and blister agents known as mustard agents. The name ''mustard gas'' is technically incorrect: the substance, when dispersed, is often not actually a gas, ...
, attacked the new 36th division near Tutung. The battle raged for several weeks on the Tutung frozen river. New 36th division troops dressed up in sheepskins in the snow, and charged Soviet machine gun posts with swords to defeat a Soviet pincer attack. Soviet planes bombed the 36th division with
mustard gas
Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is a chemical compound belonging to a family of cytotoxic and blister agents known as mustard agents. The name ''mustard gas'' is technically incorrect: the substance, when dispersed, is often not actually a gas, ...
. Heavy casualties mounted on both sides before
Ma Zhongying ordered the 36th division to withdraw.
Battle of Dawan Cheng
Ma Zhongying encountered a Soviet armored car column of a few hundred soldiers near Dawan Cheng. The new 36th division wiped out nearly the entire column, after engaging the Soviet in savage hand-to-hand combat, and rolled the wrecked Soviet armored cars off the mountainsides. When a
White Russian force showed up, Ma Zhongying withdrew.
Battle of Kashgar (1934)
New 36th division General
Ma Fuyuan
Ma Fuyuan () was a Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was present with Ma Zhongying, Ma Shih-ming, Ma Shih-lu, and Ma Ho-ying during a meet ...
stormed
Kashgar
Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. ...
, and attacked the
Uighur and
Kirghiz rebels of the
First East Turkestan Republic
The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan (TIRET; ug, شەرقىي تۈركىستان تۈرك ئىسلام جۇمھۇرىيىتى, , Шәрқий Түркистан Түрк-Ислам Җумхурийити; ) was a short-lived breakaway ...
. He freed another new 36th division general,
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
, who was trapped by the Uighurs and Kirghiz. Ma Zhancang repulsed six Uighur attacks, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians were killed, in revenge for the
Kizil massacre
The Kizil massacre () occurred in June 1933, when Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Hui Chinese soldiers and civilians from Yarkand New City on thei ...
. General
Ma Zhongying gave a speech at Idgah mosque, reminding the
Uighurs to be loyal to the
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeas ...
government at
Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and t ...
. Several citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division.
Battle of Yangi Hissar
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
led the new 36th division to attack
Uyghur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.
Battle of Yarkand
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang (, Xiao'erjing: ) was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led ...
defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king
Mohammed Zahir Shah
Mohammed Zahir Shah (Pashto/Dari: , 15 October 1914 – 23 July 2007) was the last king of Afghanistan, reigning from 8 November 1933 until he was deposed on 17 July 1973. Serving for 40 years, Zahir was the longest-serving ruler of Afghanistan ...
, and exterminated them all. The emir
Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra ( ug, (Kona Yëziq) ئابدۇللا بۇغرا, عبد الله بغرا; zh, c=阿不都拉·布格拉, p=Ābùdūlā·Bùgélā; died 1934) was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother o ...
was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque.
Charkhlik Revolt
The new 36th division under General
Ma Hushan
Ma Hu-shan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hushān; 1910 – 1954) was a Hui (Chinese Muslim) warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of ...
crushed a revolt by the
Uighurs in the
Charkhlik oasis.
Administration of Tunganistan
The new 36th division under General
Ma Hushan
Ma Hu-shan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hushān; 1910 – 1954) was a Hui (Chinese Muslim) warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of ...
administered the oases of southern
Xinjiang
Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwes ...
, and their administration was dubbed
Tunganistan by Western travelers. Ma Hushan and the new 36th division declared their loyalty to the
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Ta ...
government in
Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and t ...
and sent emissaries to Nanjing requesting aid to fight against
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai (; 3 December 189513 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the ''duban'' or Military Governor of Xinjiang. His rule o ...
's provincial forces and the Soviet Union.
The administration which was set up was colonial in nature, the
Chinese Muslims
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. Muslims are a minority group in China, representing 1.6-2 percent of the total population (21,667,000- 28,210,795) according to various estimates. Though Hui Muslims are the most num ...
started putting up street signs and names in Chinese, which used to be in only
Uighur language. They also sought to live a Chinese lifestyle, importing Chinese cooks and baths. Islam barely played a role except as a "vague spiritual focus" for unified opposition against
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai (; 3 December 189513 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the ''duban'' or Military Governor of Xinjiang. His rule o ...
and the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
.
The
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central Asia, Cent ...
in the
Charklik oases revolted against the new 36th division in 1935, and the Chinese Muslims crushed the Uyghur insurgents, executed 100 people, and took the family of the Uyghur chief as hostages.
Camel
A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
s were requisitioned by the new 36th Division in
Cherchen
Qiemo County () as the official romanized name, also transliterated from Uyghur as Qarqan County ( Uyghur: ; ), is a county under the administration of the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the ...
.
Aftermath
In May 1937, New 36th Division acting Division Commander
Ma Hushan
Ma Hu-shan (Xiao'erjing: , zh, t=馬虎山, s=马虎山, first=t, p=Mǎ Hushān; 1910 – 1954) was a Hui (Chinese Muslim) warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of ...
launched a military operation against
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai (; 3 December 189513 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the ''duban'' or Military Governor of Xinjiang. His rule o ...
, Siege
Kashgar
Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. ...
, capture
Bachu
Maralbexi County (Maralbeshi, Maralbishi, transliterated from ; ), Bachu County (), and ) the former long Chinese name as well, is located in the southwest of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China and is under th ...
, and vanguard approaches
Aksu. Sheng Shicai request Soviet help. September 1937, three Soviet regiment entry from Artush, defeat Ma Hushan at Bachu, direct to Kashgar and Yarkand, The new 36th division retreats to Hotan, Ma Hushan in early September when the Soviet army occupied Pishan, Abandoned troops and fled to India. The New 36th Division has disintegrated from now on.
[马从新:“马虎山在和阗始末”,《新疆文史资料》第26辑第209页,1994年版。]
References
{{Reflist
Divisions of the National Revolutionary Army