The 1992 Consensus is a political term referring to the alleged outcome of a meeting in 1992 between the semi-official representatives of the
Chinese Communist Party
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
(CCP)-led
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
(PRC) in
mainland China
"Mainland China", also referred to as "the Chinese mainland", is a Geopolitics, geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addit ...
and the
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
(KMT)-led
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
(ROC) on
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
. The consensus is often credited with establishing a diplomatic foundation for semi-official cross-strait exchanges beginning in the early 1990s and is a precondition set by the PRC for engaging in cross-strait dialogue.
Whether the meetings truly resulted in a consensus is disputed within the ROC. The KMT understanding of the consensus is "one China, different interpretations" (一中各表, 一個中國各自表述), i.e. that the ROC and PRC "agree" that there is
One China
''One China'' is a phrase describing the relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) based on mainland China, and the Republic of China (ROC) based on the Taiwan Area. "One China" asserts that there is only one ''de jure'' Ch ...
, but
disagree about what "China" means (i.e. ROC vs. PRC). The PRC's position is that there is one China (including Taiwan), of which PRC is the sole
legitimate representative of China. This discrepancy has been criticized by Taiwan's
Democratic Progressive Party
The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) is a centre to centre-left Taiwanese nationalist political party in Taiwan. As the dominant party in the Pan-Green Coalition, one of the two main political camps in Taiwan, the DPP is currently the ...
(DPP) who has been the ruling party since 2016. The DPP has never acknowledged the existence of the 1992 Consensus ever achieved by the semi-official meetings, and also rejects any claim that both sides of the
Taiwan Strait are "One China".
Despite political divisions in Taiwan, the
Constitution of the Republic of China
The Constitution of the Republic of China is the fifth and current constitution of the Republic of China (ROC), ratified by the Kuomintang during the Constituent National Assembly session on 25 December 1946, in Nanking, and adopted on 25 De ...
still reflects the original Kuomintang-era position that both Taiwan and mainland China are part of one China under the ROC. This constitutional framework has not been formally amended and stands in contrast to the Democratic Progressive Party’s Taiwan-centered policy, which regards Taiwan and the mainland as separate entities.
Critics argue that the term “1992 Consensus” was not actually used at the time of the 1992 meeting. Instead, it was coined later, in April 2000 by
Su Chi
Su Chi (; born 1 October 1949) is a Taiwanese political scientist and politician. Su served as Secretary-General of the National Security Council from 2008 to 2010. Previously, he was the Minister of the Mainland Affairs Council of the Execu ...
, a former
National Security Council
A national security council (NSC) is usually an executive branch governmental body responsible for coordinating policy on national security issues and advising chief executives on matters related to national security. An NSC is often headed by a n ...
secretary-general - eight years after the meeting took place. Former
President of ROC Lee Teng-hui
Lee Teng-hui (; pinyin: ''Lǐ Dēnghuī''; 15 January 192330 July 2020) was a Taiwanese politician and agricultural scientist who served as the fourth president of the Republic of China, president of the Taiwan, Republic of China (Taiwan) unde ...
, a Kuomintang (KMT) leader during his 1988–2000 term, expressed skepticism about the 1992 Consensus in 2006.
Later, Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) President
Tsai Ing-wen
Tsai Ing-wen (; pinyin: ''Cài Yīngwén''; born 31 August 1956) is a Taiwanese politician and legal scholar who served as the seventh president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2016 to 2024. A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ...
, who served from 2016 to 2024, criticized the consensus in a January 2019 speech, associating it with the PRC’s "
one country, two systems
"One country, two systems" is a constitutional principle of the People's Republic of China (PRC) describing the governance of the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.
Deng Xiaoping developed the one country, two systems ...
" framework.
History
On 1 August 1992, the ROC's
National Unification Council passed the "Definition of One China Resolution," stating: "The two sides of the Taiwan Strait uphold the One China principle, but the interpretations of the two sides are different ... Our side believes that one China should mean the Republic of China, established in 1912 and existing today, and its sovereignty extends throughout China, but its current governing authority is only over Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matzu. Admittedly, Taiwan is part of China, but the mainland is also a part of China."
This resolution provided the basis for a series of talks between the
Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Strait (ARATS) of the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
(PRC) and the
Straits Exchange Foundation (SEF) of the
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
(ROC).
1992 ARATS-SEF meeting and Wang-Koo summits
In November 1992, a meeting between ARATS and SEF occurred in
British Hong Kong
Hong Kong was under British Empire, British rule from 1841 to 1997, except for a Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, brief period of Japanese occupation during World War II from 1941 to 1945. It was a crown colony of the United Kingdom from 1841 ...
. On 1 November 1992, SEF issued a press release stating that "each side expresses its own interpretation verbally in order to solve this sticky problem of
ne Chinaand thereby reaffirmed the August 1st NUC resolution as SEF's interpretation of One China."
ARATS telephoned SEF and stated that it "fully respected and accepted" Taipei's proposal to use verbal declarations for each side's position on this issue.
On 16 November, ARATS sent a letter to SEF formally confirming that position and stating, "both sides of the strait uphold the principle of one China, and actively seek national unification, but the political interpretation of the one China will not be referred to in the cross-strait negotiations on functional issues."
The conclusion they reached was intended as a means of side-stepping the conflict over the
political status of Taiwan
The island of Taiwan is the subject of a geopolitical dispute between the Republic of China (ROC), which controls it, and the People's Republic of China (PRC), which claims it as part of its territory.
The Republic of China (ROC) was establ ...
. At the time of the meeting, Hong Kong was under
British rule
The British Raj ( ; from Hindustani , 'reign', 'rule' or 'government') was the colonial rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent,
*
* lasting from 1858 to 1947.
*
* It is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
* or dire ...
and therefore considered neutral territory by both sides. In the KMT's view, the consensus is about "one China, respective interpretations."
As a result of the 1992 meeting, ARATS Chairman
Wang Daohan and SEF Chairman
Koo Chen-fu met in
Singapore
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
on April 27, 1993, in what became known as the
Wang-Koo summit. They concluded agreements on document authentication, postal transfers, and a schedule for future ARATS-SEF meetings. Talks were delayed as tensions rose in the
Third Taiwan Strait Crisis
The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1995–1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis, or the 1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was the effect of a series of missile tests conducted by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the waters surrounding Taiwan, ...
, but in October 1998 a second round of Wang-Koo summit were held in
Shanghai
Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
. Wang and Koo agreed to meet again in Taiwan in the autumn of 1999, but the meeting was called off by the PRC side when then President
Lee Teng-hui
Lee Teng-hui (; pinyin: ''Lǐ Dēnghuī''; 15 January 192330 July 2020) was a Taiwanese politician and agricultural scientist who served as the fourth president of the Republic of China, president of the Taiwan, Republic of China (Taiwan) unde ...
proposed his
Two-states Theory of "special state-to-state relations".
After Lee began a more independence-oriented policy in the mid-1990s, the PRC began describing "one China, respective interpretations" as a "deliberate distortion" used by independence advocates as a "disguise" for either "two Chinas" or Taiwan's formal separation.
Chen Shui-bian and Hu Jintao era
The leader of the liberal Democratic Development Party (DPP),
Chen Shui-bian
Chen Shui-bian ( zh, t=陳水扁; born 12 October 1950) is a Taiwanese former politician and lawyer who served as the fifth president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2000 to 2008. Chen was the first president from the Democratic Progres ...
made his famous
Four Noes and One Without proposal during his campaign in the presidential election in 2000. The proposal did not directly include the 1992 Consensus, but showed an intention to maintain the ambiguous status quo, which reflected largely the idea of the Consensus. The election ended with the first president-elected from the opposition party, and led to a shift of foreign policy. Chen's victory in 2000 prompted former SEF official
Su Chi
Su Chi (; born 1 October 1949) is a Taiwanese political scientist and politician. Su served as Secretary-General of the National Security Council from 2008 to 2010. Previously, he was the Minister of the Mainland Affairs Council of the Execu ...
to coin the term "1992 Consensus" in order to capture the broadest consensus between different parties in Taiwan over the outcome of the 1992 meeting.
President
Chen Shui-bian
Chen Shui-bian ( zh, t=陳水扁; born 12 October 1950) is a Taiwanese former politician and lawyer who served as the fifth president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2000 to 2008. Chen was the first president from the Democratic Progres ...
initially expressed some willingness to accept the 1992 Consensus, a precondition set by the PRC for dialogue, but backed down after backlash within his own party.
During his presidency, Chen made different statements about the ambiguous status quo and his policy towards PRC, but the government of PRC generally didn't echo any of his speech. Despite the frozen atmosphere between the governments from the two sides of the strait, business and economic interactions thrived in Chen's presidency.
In 2005, the 1992 Consensus was invoked by the opposition parties who controlled the parliament.
Lien Chan
Lien Chan ( zh, t=連戰, w=, p=, poj=; born August 27, 1936) is a Taiwanese political scientist and politician. He was the chairman of the Taiwan Provincial Government from 1990 to 1993, premier of the Republic of China from 1993 to 1997, vice ...
, the chairman of the largest opposition party KMT and
James Soong
Soong Chu-yu (; born 30 April 1942), also known by his English name James Soong, is a Taiwanese political scientist and politician who is the founder and chairman of the People First Party. Soong was the first and only elected governor of Taiw ...
, chairman of another opposition party People First Party (PFP), made
separate trips to mainland China to conduct their party-to-party dialog separately with the ruling
Chinese Communist Party
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
(CCP) across the strait. Both leaders explicitly endorsed the 1992 Consensus. However, no relevant legislation was made in the parliament for the result of the dialogues.
Ma Ying-jeou and Hu Jintao era
The election of Ma Ying-jeou to the presidential office and the victory of KMT in the parliament election saw both sides of the Taiwan strait moving closer. In his inauguration speech on 20 May 2008, Ma stated that both sides of the strait reached a consensus in 1992, which saw "one China with different interpretations" and the ROC would resume talks with the PRC as soon as possible based on the 1992 Consensus.
In 2008, CCP invited the chairman of KMT,
Wu Po-hsiung, to engage in an intraparty dialog in Beijing where Wu met the
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
The general secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party ( zh, s=中国共产党中央委员会总书记, p=Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng Zhōngyāng Wěiyuánhuì Zǒngshūjì) is the leader of the Chinese Communist Part ...
,
Hu Jintao on 28 May. After the meeting, the state news agency
Xinhua
Xinhua News Agency (English pronunciation: ),J. C. Wells: Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 3rd ed., for both British and American English or New China News Agency, is the official State media, state news agency of the China, People's Republic ...
reported that participants in the meeting declared that both sides across the strait will lay aside disputes, and work for a win-win situation on the basis of the 1992 Consensus. The semi-governmental dialog between the SEF from Taiwan and the ARATS from China was scheduled to re-open on the basis of the 1992 Consensus, with the first meeting held in June. The first priority for the SEF-ARATS meeting was the establishments of the
three links, especially direct flights between mainland China and Taiwan. On 4 July 2008,
Weekend direct chartered flights between mainland China and Taiwan commenced subsequent to the semi-official talk in Beijing.
In an interview by the Mexico-based newspaper ''
El Sol de México'' on 2 September 2008, Ma was asked about his views on the subject of "
two Chinas
The concept of Two Chinas refers to the political divide between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). Founded in 1912, the ROC governed mainland China until the Chinese Communist Party established the PRC in 1 ...
" and if there is a solution for the sovereignty issues between the two. The ROC President replied that the relations are not between two sovereign states, not between "two Chinas". "It is a
special relationship", he said. Ma also stated that the sovereignty issues between the two cannot be resolved at present, and then quoted the 1992 Consensus, as a temporary measure until a solution becomes available. The spokesman for the ROC Presidential Office
Wang Yu-chi later clarified the President's statement and said that the relations are between two regions of one country, based on the context of ROC Constitution, the
Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area and the 1992 Consensus.
CCP and its leader Hu didn't evaluate any new meaning of the Consensus from the other side of the strait. A phone call between the heads of state of China and
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, the most important ally of Taiwan, occurred in 2008. The English website of Xinhua reported that
Hu Jintao told President
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who was the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Bush family and the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he i ...
that it is PRC's "consistent stand that the Chinese Mainland and Taiwan should restore consultation and talks on the basis of the 1992 Consensus, which sees both sides recognize there is only one China, but agree to differ on its definition".
The Chinese version of the same agency only mentioned that the resumption of the talks should be on the basis of the 1992 Consensus without expanding into the meaning of the Consensus. On 12 January 2011, Xinhua reiterated Beijing's position on this issue by saying that "under which both sides adhere to the One-China Principle", which is a highlight of the first half of the Consensus.
During the
cross-strait summit in 2015, the Consensus was stressed by both Ma and
Xi Jinping
Xi Jinping, pronounced (born 15 June 1953) is a Chinese politician who has been the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China), chairman of the Central Military Commission ...
, the successor of Hu Jintao. During the meetings, Ma brought up the second half of the Consensus "different interpretations of one China" in front of the leader of China, but Xi made no remarkable response.
Tsai Ing-wen and Xi Jinping era
In her 2016 campaign,
Tsai Ing-wen
Tsai Ing-wen (; pinyin: ''Cài Yīngwén''; born 31 August 1956) is a Taiwanese politician and legal scholar who served as the seventh president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2016 to 2024. A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ...
did not challenge the 1992 consensus, but did not explicitly accept it either, referring instead to "existing realities and political foundations".
After Tsai's victory in the presidential election of Taiwan,
Chinese Communist Party
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
general secretary
Secretary is a title often used in organizations to indicate a person having a certain amount of authority, Power (social and political), power, or importance in the organization. Secretaries announce important events and communicate to the org ...
Xi Jinping stated on 12 March 2016, that the 1992 Consensus was "the greatest common denominator and political bottom line for the peaceful development of cross-strait relations".
On 2 January 2019, Xi Jinping marked the 40th Anniversary message to Taiwan compatriots with a long speech calling for the adherence to the 1992 Consensus and vigorously opposing Taiwanese independence.
He said the political resolution of the Taiwan issue will be the formula used in Hong Kong and Macau, the one country, two systems.
The ROC President,
Tsai Ing-wen
Tsai Ing-wen (; pinyin: ''Cài Yīngwén''; born 31 August 1956) is a Taiwanese politician and legal scholar who served as the seventh president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) from 2016 to 2024. A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ...
responded to Xi's speech the same day. She stated that "the Beijing authorities' definition of the '1992 Consensus' is 'one China' and 'one country, two systems'", and that "we have never accepted the '1992 Consensus.'" Tsai later called for the PRC to conduct negotiations with the Taiwanese government to resolve the political status of Taiwan rather than engage in political consultations with individual Taiwanese political parties to advance their reunification goals. A January 2020 piece in ''
The Diplomat'' noted that the CCP, KMT, and DPP were all currently challenging their own conceptions of the 1992 consensus. A task force convened by the Kuomintang's reform committee issued new guidelines on cross-strait relations in June 2020. The task force found that public trust in the consensus had declined due to the actions of Beijing and DPP. The consensus was described as "a historical description of past cross-strait interaction," and the task force proposed that the consensus be replaced with a commitment to "upholding the Republic of China’s national sovereignty; safeguarding freedom, democracy and human rights; prioritizing the safety of Taiwan; and creating win-win cross-strait relations."
Following the landslide defeat of the KMT in the
2020 Taiwanese presidential election, some commentators speculated that the KMT would remove the 1992 Consensus from the party platform due to its associations with "one country, two systems".
However, KMT chairman
Johnny Chiang ultimately kept the 1992 Consensus. However, he rejected the "one country, two systems" as a feasible model for Taiwan. In 2021, the
Taiwan Affairs Office stated that the meaning of the 1992 consensus is "both sides of the strait belong to one China, and work together to strive for national unification".
The KMT platform under newly elected chairman
Eric Chu also continued to include the 1992 consensus while rejecting "one country, two systems". In 2022, Chu called the 1992 Consensus a "'no consensus' consensus."
Ambiguity and debate
The KMT has defined the 1992 Consensus as "one China with different interpretations", i.e. that both sides agreed that there was only a single China, but indirectly recognized and respected that both sides had different interpretations of that concept.
The ambiguity of the 1992 Consensus allows the PRC to claim that both sides of the strait uphold the integrity of one China. On the other side, the same ambiguity allows the ROC to emphasize that it is the only China to which both the mainland and Taiwan belong.
This facilitated the development of cross-strait relations in the early 1990s.
The
Democratic Progressive Party
The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) is a centre to centre-left Taiwanese nationalist political party in Taiwan. As the dominant party in the Pan-Green Coalition, one of the two main political camps in Taiwan, the DPP is currently the ...
(DPP), however, does not conceive the 1992 meeting as consensus-producing. It argues that the concept of 1992 Consensus strengthens the PRC's claim over the sovereignty of Taiwan and does no better to the security of Taiwan than the situation before the meeting.
Some
pro-independence supporters, such as former President Lee Teng-hui, point to a lack of documentation to argue that the consensus has never existed.
According to
Raymond Burghardt, the chair of the
American Institute in Taiwan, the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
representative office in Taiwan:
:"
here wassome language
n the faxesthat overlapped and some language that differed." Then Taiwan and China agreed to conduct dialog based on their statements written in those faxes. "That's what happened. Nothing more or nothing less," Burghardt said, adding that the KMT called this the '1992 Consensus', which was to some extent "confusing and misleading. To me, I'm not sure why you could call that a consensus."
Public opinion in Taiwan
In 2018, academics conducted a survey in Taiwan to assess Taiwanese understanding of the 1992 Consensus. They gave respondents four possible meanings of the consensus:
: ''Historic'': On international affairs, both ROC and PRC claim to represent the whole Chinese people including both mainland and Taiwan.
: ''KMT definition'': ROC represents Taiwan, PRC represents the mainland, the two governments belong to the same country waiting for unification.
: ''Incorrect'': ROC represents Taiwan, PRC represents the mainland, the two governments belong to two different countries.
: ''PRC definition'': PRC represents the whole Chinese people including both mainland and Taiwan, and ROC is the local government.
They found that 34% chose the KMT's definition (which was acceptable to 48%), 33% chose the incorrect definition (acceptable to 75%), 17% chose the historic relationship (acceptable to 40%), and 5% chose the PRC definition (acceptable to 10%), and 11% did not respond.
A 2020 poll conducted by the Duke University Program in Asian Security Studies that asked "Some people argue that Taiwan and China should live under a policy of “One China, Two Rule” with ongoing exchanges. Do you support this statement?" found that 51.0% of respondents agreed and 39.5% of respondents disagreed.
See also
*
Taiwan consensus
*
Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area
*
Mutual non-recognition of sovereignty and mutual non-denial of authority to govern
References
{{Cross-Strait relations
Consensus
Cross-strait relations
Consensus
1992 in Taiwan
2000 neologisms
Conservatism in Taiwan
Political compromises
Chinese nationalism