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Synergetics (Haken)
Synergetics is an interdisciplinary science explaining the formation and self-organization of patterns and structures in open systems far from thermodynamic equilibrium. It is founded by Hermann Haken, inspired by the laser theory. Haken's interpretation of the laser principles as self-organization of non-equilibrium systems paved the way at the end of the 1960s to the development of synergetics. One of his successful popular books is ''Erfolgsgeheimnisse der Natur'', translated into English as ''The Science of Structure: Synergetics''. Self-organization requires a 'macroscopic' system, consisting of many nonlinearly interacting subsystems. Depending on the external control parameters (environment, energy fluxes) self-organization takes place. Order-parameter concept Essential in synergetics is the order-parameter concept which was originally introduced in the Ginzburg–Landau theory in order to describe phase transitions in thermodynamics. The order parameter concept is genera ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Self-organization
Self-organization, also called spontaneous order in the social sciences, is a process where some form of overall order and disorder, order arises from local interactions between parts of an initially disordered system. The process can be spontaneous when sufficient energy is available, not needing control by any external agent. It is often triggered by seemingly random Statistical fluctuations, fluctuations, amplified by positive feedback. The resulting organization is wholly decentralized, :wikt:distribute, distributed over all the components of the system. As such, the organization is typically Robustness, robust and able to survive or self-healing material, self-repair substantial perturbation theory, perturbation. Chaos theory discusses self-organization in terms of islands of predictability in a sea of chaotic unpredictability. Self-organization occurs in many physics, physical, chemistry, chemical, biology, biological, robotics, robotic, and cognitive systems. Examples of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Noise (physics)
In electronics, noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal. Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects. In particular, noise is inherent in physics and central to thermodynamics. Any conductor with electrical resistance will generate thermal noise inherently. The final elimination of thermal noise in electronics can only be achieved cryogenically, and even then quantum noise would remain inherent. Electronic noise is a common component of noise in signal processing. In communication systems, noise is an error or undesired random disturbance of a useful information signal in a communication channel. The noise is a summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural and sometimes man-made sources. Noise is, however, typically distinguished from interference, for example in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) and signal-to-noise plus interference ratio (SNIR) measures ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Buckminster Fuller
Richard Buckminster Fuller (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist. He styled his name as R. Buckminster Fuller in his writings, publishing more than 30 books and coining or popularizing such terms as " Spaceship Earth", "Dymaxion" (e.g., Dymaxion house, Dymaxion car, Dymaxion map), " ephemeralization", " synergetics", and "tensegrity". Fuller developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome; carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres. He also served as the second World President of Mensa International from 1974 to 1983. Fuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates. In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute. He was elected an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fokker–Planck Equation
In statistical mechanics and information theory, the Fokker–Planck equation is a partial differential equation that describes the time evolution of the probability density function of the velocity of a particle under the influence of drag (physics), drag forces and random forces, as in Brownian motion. The equation can be generalized to other observables as well. The Fokker–Planck equation has multiple applications in information theory, graph theory, data science, finance, economics etc. It is named after Adriaan Fokker and Max Planck, who described it in 1914 and 1917. It is also known as the Kolmogorov forward equation, after Andrey Kolmogorov, who independently discovered it in 1931. When applied to particle position distributions, it is better known as the Smoluchowski equation (after Marian Smoluchowski), and in this context it is equivalent to the convection–diffusion equation. When applied to particle position and momentum distributions, it is known as the Klein–Kr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Free Energy Principle
The free energy principle is a mathematical principle of information physics. Its application to fMRI brain imaging data as a theoretical framework suggests that the brain reduces surprise or uncertainty by making predictions based on internal models and uses sensory input to update its models so as to improve the accuracy of its predictions. This principle approximates an integration of Bayesian inference with active inference, where actions are guided by predictions and sensory feedback refines them. From it, wide-ranging inferences have been made about brain function, perception, and action. Its applicability to living systems has been questioned. Overview In biophysics and cognitive science, the free energy principle is a mathematical principle describing a formal account of the representational capacities of physical systems: that is, why things that exist look as if they track properties of the systems to which they are coupled. It establishes that the dynamics of physi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Phase Rule
In thermodynamics, the phase rule is a general principle governing multi-component, multi-phase systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. For a system without chemical reactions, it relates the number of freely varying intensive properties () to the number of components (), the number of phases (), and number of ways of performing work on the system (): :F = N + C - P + 1 Examples of intensive properties that count toward are the temperature and pressure. For simple liquids and gases, pressure-volume work is the only type of work, in which case . The rule was derived by American physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs in his landmark paper titled '' On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances'', published in parts between 1875 and 1878. The number of degrees of freedom (also called the ''variance'') is the number of independent intensive properties, ''i.e.'', the largest number of thermodynamic parameters such as temperature or pressure that can be varied simultaneously and independe ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Josiah Willard Gibbs
Josiah Willard Gibbs (; February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American mechanical engineer and scientist who made fundamental theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he created modern vector calculus (independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside, who carried out similar work during the same period) and described the Gibbs phenomenon in the theory of Fourier analysis. In 1863, Yale University awarded Gibbs the firs ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Effective Field Theory
In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry), degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales. Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics. Effective field theories have found use in particle physics, statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, general relativity, and hydrodynamics. They simplify calculati ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Electric Dipole Moment
The electric dipole moment is a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical charges within a system: that is, a measure of the system's overall Chemical polarity, polarity. The International System of Units, SI unit for electric dipole moment is the coulomb-metre (C⋅m). The debye (D) is another unit of measurement used in atomic physics and chemistry. Theoretically, an electric dipole is defined by the first-order term of the multipole expansion; it consists of two equal and opposite charges that are infinitesimally close together, although real dipoles have separated charge.Many theorists predict elementary particles can have very tiny electric dipole moments, possibly without separated charge. Such small dipoles make no difference to everyday physics, and have not yet been observed (see ''Electron electric dipole moment''). However, when making measurements at a distance much larger than the charge separation, the dipole gives a good approximation of the actua ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Coherence (physics)
Coherence expresses the potential for two waves to Wave interference, interfere. Two Monochromatic radiation, monochromatic beams from a single source always interfere. Wave sources are not strictly monochromatic: they may be ''partly coherent''. When interfering, two waves add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (constructive Wave interference, interference) or subtract from each other to create a wave of minima which may be zero (destructive interference), depending on their relative phase (waves), phase. Constructive or destructive interference are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable. Two waves with constant relative phase will be coherent. The amount of coherence can readily be measured by the interference visibility, which looks at the size of the interference fringes relative to the input waves (as the phase offset is varied); a precise mathematical definition of the de ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Correlation
In statistics, correlation or dependence is any statistical relationship, whether causal or not, between two random variables or bivariate data. Although in the broadest sense, "correlation" may indicate any type of association, in statistics it usually refers to the degree to which a pair of variables are '' linearly'' related. Familiar examples of dependent phenomena include the correlation between the height of parents and their offspring, and the correlation between the price of a good and the quantity the consumers are willing to purchase, as it is depicted in the demand curve. Correlations are useful because they can indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in practice. For example, an electrical utility may produce less power on a mild day based on the correlation between electricity demand and weather. In this example, there is a causal relationship, because extreme weather causes people to use more electricity for heating or cooling. However, in g ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Atomic Electron Transition
In atomic physics and chemistry, an atomic electron transition (also called an atomic transition, quantum jump, or quantum leap) is an electron changing from one energy level to another within an atom or artificial atom. The time scale of a quantum jump has not been measured experimentally. However, the Franck–Condon principle binds the upper limit of this parameter to the order of attoseconds. Electrons can ''relax'' into states of lower energy by emitting electromagnetic radiation in the form of a photon. Electrons can also absorb passing photons, which ''excites'' the electron into a state of higher energy. The larger the energy separation between the electron's initial and final state, the shorter the photons' wavelength. History Danish physicist Niels Bohr first theorized that electrons can perform quantum jumps in 1913. Soon after, James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz proved experimentally that atoms have quantized energy states. The observability of quantum jum ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
