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Folwark
''Folwark'' is a Polish word derived from the German ''Vorwerk''. A Folwark or Vorwerk is an agricultural estate or a separate branch operation of such an estate, historically a serfdom-based farm and agricultural enterprise (a type of latifundium), often very large. The term has changed its meaning several times throughout history and can therefore be used in various ways. Originally, the associated agricultural estates were usually located outside fortifications or castles and directly in front of them, and were therefore often referred to as ''Folwark'' or, in German-speaking regions, ''Vorwerk'', meaning advanced work or outwork, a kind of outlying defensive outpost. In place names and field names, the word can still be present in this meaning. Later, the term was used for outposts of manor farms with estate operations or individual tenant farms. On larger estates with extensive land areas, there were often smaller and more remote branch operations in addition to the ma ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Volok Reform
The Volok Reform (; ; ) was a 16th-century land reform in parts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania proper, Duchy of Samogitia and parts of White Ruthenia). The reform was started by Grand Duchess Bona Sforza in her possessions to increase the revenues of the state treasury but soon was expanded statewide and was copied by other nobles and the Church. The reform increased effectiveness of agriculture by establishing a strict three-field system for crop rotation. The land was measured, registered in a cadastre, and divided into volok (unit), voloks (land unit of about ). Volok became the measurement of feudal services. The reform was a success in terms of the annual state revenue that quadrupled from 20,000 to 82,000 kopa (number), kopas of Lithuanian groschens. In social terms, the reform and the accompanying Third Statute of Lithuania (1588), promoted development of manorialism and fully established serfdom in Lithuania which existed until the emancipation reform of 1861. The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic (), was a federation, federative real union between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, existing from 1569 to 1795. This state was among the largest, most populated countries of 16th- to 18th-century Europe. At its peak in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth spanned approximately and supported a multi-ethnic population of around 12 million as of 1618. The official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish language, Polish and Latin Language, Latin, with Catholic Church, Catholicism as the state religion. The Union of Lublin established the Commonwealth as a single entity on 1 July 1569. The two nations had previously been in a personal union since the Union of Krewo, Krewo Agreement of 1385 (Polish–Lithuanian union) and the subsequent marriage of Queen Jadwiga of Poland to Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania, who was cr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Szlachta
The ''szlachta'' (; ; ) were the nobility, noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Depending on the definition, they were either a warrior "caste" or a social class, and they dominated those states by exercising szlachta's privileges, political rights and power. Szlachta as a class differed significantly from the Feudalism, feudal nobility of Western Europe. The estate was officially abolished in 1921 by the March Constitution (Poland), March Constitution."Szlachta. Szlachta w Polsce" ''Encyklopedia PWN'' The origins of the ''szlachta'' are obscure and the subject of several theories. The ''szlachta'' secured Golden Liberty, substantial and increasing political power and rights throughout its history, begin ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Abolition Of Serfdom In Poland
Abolition of serfdom in Poland was a gradual process tied to the economy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where the nobility depended on serf labour for income and status. Initial steps toward reform began in the late 18th century, with the Constitution of 3 May 1791 offering limited protections to peasants and the Połaniec Proclamation of 1794 reducing some obligations of serfs and granting limited rights, such as personal freedom and protection from landlord abuses, during the Kościuszko Uprising. These efforts faced strong resistance from nobles who were reluctant to lose control over free labour. Serfdom was finally abolished in Polish and Lithuanian territories during the 19th century as part of broader European reforms ending feudal obligations. In the Austrian partition, serfdom was abolished in 1848, following the revolutionary movements sweeping through Europe. In the Prussian partition, reforms under the Stein-Hardenberg reforms ended serfdom in 1807. In the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Privilege Of Toruń
Privilege may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Privilege'' (film), a 1967 film directed by Peter Watkins * ''Privilege'' (Ivor Cutler album), 1983 * ''Privilege'' (Television Personalities album), 1990 * '' Privilege (Abridged)'', an album by Parenthetical Girls, 2013 * " Privilege (Set Me Free)", a 1978 song by the Patti Smith Group * "Privilege" (''Law & Order: Criminal Intent''), a television episode * "Privilege", a short story by Frederick Forsyth included in the collection '' No Comebacks'' * "Privilege", a song by Kevin Federline from the album ''Playing with Fire'' (Kevin Federline album) Business * Privilege (insurance company), a division of the Royal Bank of Scotland * Privilege Ibiza, a nightclub in Ibiza, Spain * Privilege Style, a Spanish charter airline * Printing privilege, a precursor of copyright conferring exclusive publishing rights Society and politics * Privilege (evidence), rules excluding certain confidential communication from being admissi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Statutes Of Piotrków
The Piotrków Statutes () were a set of laws enacted in the Kingdom of Poland in 1496. King John I Albert made a number of concessions to the nobility, whose support he required in war. Among other things, the nobles were relieved of certain taxes and were granted exclusive rights to high Church offices. Additionally city burghers were forbidden from holding royal and national offices, while the peasants were restricted in their mobility; according to the statutes, only one peasant was allowed to leave his home village per year and only one member of a peasant family was allowed to move to the towns. The statute also removed all tariffs on internal trade along waterways. References See also *Nieszawa Statutes The Nieszawa Statutes () were a set of laws enacted in the Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons, Kingdom of Poland in 1454, in the town of Nieszawa located in north-central Poland. The King Casimir IV Jagiellon made a number of concessions to the Pol ... * Szlachta's pr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Economic System
An economic system, or economic order, is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within an economy. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes, and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community. An economic system is a type of social system. The mode of production is a related concept. All economic systems must confront and solve the four fundamental economic problems: * What kinds and quantities of goods shall be produced: This fundamental economic problem is anchored on the theory of pricing. The theory of pricing, in this context, has to do with the economic decision-making between the production of capital goods and consumer goods in the economy in the face of scarce resources. In this regard, the critical evaluation of the needs of the society based on population distribution in terms of age, sex, occupation, and geography is very ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Peasantry
A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasants existed: non-free slaves, semi-free serfs, and free tenants. Peasants might hold title to land outright (fee simple), or by any of several forms of land tenure, among them socage, quit-rent, leasehold, and copyhold. In some contexts, "peasant" has a pejorative meaning, even when referring to farm laborers. As early as in 13th-century Germany, the concept of "peasant" could imply "rustic" as well as "robber", as the English term villain/villein. In 21st-century English, the word "peasant" can mean "an ignorant, rude, or unsophisticated person". The word rose to renewed popularity in the 1940s–1960s as a collective term, often referring to rural populations of developing countries in general, as the "semantic successor to 'native', ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Renting
Renting, also known as hiring or letting, is an agreement where a payment is made for the use of a good, service or property owned by another over a fixed period of time. To maintain such an agreement, a rental agreement (or lease) is signed to establish the roles and expectations of both the tenant and landlord. There are many different types of leases. The type and terms of a lease are decided by the landlord and agreed upon by the renting tenant. History Various types of rent are referenced in Roman law: rent (''canon'') under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent (''reditus'') of a farm; ground-rent (''solarium''); rent of state lands (''vectigal''); and the annual rent (''prensio'') payable for the ''jus superficiarum'' or right to the perpetual enjoyment of anything built on the surface of land. Reasons for renting There are many possible reasons for renting instead of buying, for example: *In many jurisdictions (including India, Spain, Australia, Unit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cereal
A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize ( Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, such as amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa, are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres. Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic around 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent; rice and some millets were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and other millets were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticat ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Manor House
A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The house formed the administrative centre of a manor in the European feudal system; within its great hall were usually held the lord's manorial courts, communal meals with manorial tenants and great banquets. The term is today loosely (though erroneously) applied to various English country houses, mostly at the smaller end of the spectrum, sometimes dating from the Late Middle Ages, which currently or formerly house the landed gentry. Manor houses were sometimes fortified, albeit not as fortified as castles, but this was often more for show than for defence. They existed in most European countries where feudalism was present. Function The lord of the manor may have held several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom, which he occupied only on occasional visits. Even so, the business of the manor was directed and controlled by regular mano ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
