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Julian Calendar
The Julian calendar, proposed by Roman consul Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on , by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandria. The calendar became the predominant calendar in the Roman Empire and subsequently most of the Western world for more than 1,600 years until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated a minor modification to reduce the average length of the year from 365.25 days to 365.2425 days and thus corrected the Julian calendar's drift against the solar year. Worldwide adoption of this revised calendar, which became known as the Gregorian calendar, took place over the subsequent centuries, first in Catholic countries and subsequently in Protestant countries of the Western Christian world. The Julian calendar is still used in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts of Oriental Orthodoxy as well as by the Berbers. The Julian calenda ...
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Roman Consul
A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum'' (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired) after that of the censor. Each year, the Centuriate Assembly elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holding '' fasces'' – taking turns leading – each month when both were in Rome and a consul's '' imperium'' extended over Rome and all its provinces. There were two consuls in order to create a check on the power of any individual citizen in accordance with the republican belief that the powers of the former kings of Rome should be spread out into multiple offices. To that end, each consul could veto the actions of the other consul. After the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very litt ...
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Eastern Orthodox Church
The Eastern Orthodox Church, also called the Orthodox Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 220 million baptized members. It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops via local synods. The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority analogous to the head of the Roman Catholic Church—the Pope—but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognized by them as '' primus inter pares'' ("first among equals"), which may be explained as a representative of the church. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially calls itself the Orthodox Catholic Church. Eastern Orthodox theology is based on holy tradition, which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven ecumenical councils, the Scriptures, and the tea ...
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Sextilis
Sextilis ("sixth") or ''mensis Sextilis'' was the Latin name for what was originally the sixth month in the Roman calendar, when March ('' Martius'', "Mars' month") was the first of ten months in the year. After the calendar reform that produced a twelve-month year, Sextilis became the eighth month, but retained its name. It was renamed ''Augustus'' (August) in 8 BC in honor of the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Sextilis followed Quinctilis, which was renamed ''Julius'' (July) after Julius Caesar, and preceded September (from ''septem'', "seven"), which was originally the seventh month. The month ''Augustus'' ''Julius'' (July) was renamed from ''Quintilis'' ("fifth" month) in honor of Julius Caesar, who had adopted his grand-nephew Octavian, the future Augustus, and made him his heir. It has sometimes been thought that the month has 31 days because Augustus wanted as many days in his month as in his predecessor's, but Sextilis in fact had 31 days since the reform during Ca ...
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Quintilis
In the ancient Roman calendar, Quintilis or Quinctilis was the month following Junius (June) and preceding Sextilis (August). ''Quintilis'' is Latin for "fifth": it was the fifth month (''quintilis mensis'') in the earliest calendar attributed to Romulus, which began with Martius (" Mars' month," March) and had 10 months. After the calendar reform that produced a 12-month year, Quintilis became the seventh month, but retained its name. In 45 BC, Julius Caesar instituted a new calendar (the Julian calendar) that corrected astronomical discrepancies in the old. After his death in 44 BC, the month of Quintilis, his birth month, was renamed ''Julius'' in his honor, hence July."Los Cielos de Agosto" (Spanish: "The Skies of August"), Jorge R. Ianiszewski, ''Circulo Astronomico'', 2006, webpageCirA-Agosto Quintilis was under the guardianship ''( tutela)'' of the Romans' supreme deity Jupiter, with sacrifices made particularly to Neptune and Apollo. Agricultural festivals directed at th ...
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Iunius (month)
On the ancient Roman calendar, ''mensis Iunius'' or ''Iunius'', also ''Junius'' (June), was the fourth month, following '' Maius'' ( May). In the oldest calendar attributed by the Romans to Romulus, ''Iunius'' was the fourth month in a ten-month year that began with March ''( Martius,'' "Mars' month"). The month following June was thus called '' Quinctilis'' or '' Quintilis'', the "fifth" month. ''Iunius'' had 29 days until a day was added during the Julian reform of the calendar in the mid-40s BC. The month that followed ''Iunius'' was renamed ''Iulius'' (July) in honour of Julius Caesar. Name of the month In his poem on the Roman calendar, Ovid has three goddesses present three different derivations of the name ''Iunius''. Juno asserts that the month is named for her. Juventas ("Youth") pairs ''Iunius'' with ''Maius'': the former, she says, comes from ''junior'', "a younger person", in contrast to ''maiores'' or the "elders" for whom May was named. Juno's own name may derive ...
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Maius
''Maius'' or ''mensis Maius'' ( May) was the third month of the ancient Roman calendar, following ''Aprilis'' (April) and preceding ''Iunius'' (June). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, it was the third of ten months in the year. May had 31 days. The Romans considered May an infelicitous month. Although it began with one of the most notoriously licentious holidays of the Roman calendar, the Games of Flora ''( Ludi Florae)'', the middle of the month was devoted to propitiating the ''lemures'', the restless shades of the dead. Dates The Romans did not number days of a month sequentially from the 1st through the last day. Instead, they counted back from the three fixed points of the month: the Nones (5th or 7th, depending on the length of the month), the Ides (13th or 15th), and the Kalends (1st) of the following month. Thus the last day of May was the ''pridie Kalendas Iunias,'' "day before the Kalends of June". Roman counting was inclusive; May 9 was ''ante ...
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Aprilis
''Aprilis'' or ''mensis Aprilis'' (April) was the second month of the ancient Roman calendar, following '' Martius'' ( March) and preceding '' Maius'' (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, ''Aprilis'' was the second of ten months in the year. April had 29 days on calendars of the Roman Republic, with a day added to the month during the reform in the mid-40s BC that produced the Julian calendar. April was marked by a series of festivals devoted to aspects of rural life, since it was a busy month for farmers. As Rome became more urbanized, the significance of some ceremonies expanded, notably the Parilia, an archaic pastoral festival celebrated as the "birthday" ''( dies natalis)'' or founding day of Rome. The month was generally preoccupied with deities who were female or ambiguous in gender, opening with the Feast of Venus on the Kalends. Name of the month The Romans thought that the name ''Aprilis'' derived from ''aperio, aperire, apertus'', a verb m ...
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Martius (month)
''Martius'' or ''mensis Martius'' (" March") was the first month of the ancient Roman year until possibly as late as 153 BC. After that time, it was the third month, following '' Februarius'' ( February) and preceding '' Aprilis'' (April). ''Martius'' was one of the few Roman months named for a deity, Mars, who was regarded as an ancestor of the Roman people through his sons Romulus and Remus. March marked a return to the active life of farming, military campaigning, and sailing. It was densely packed with religious observances dating from the earliest period of Roman history. Because of its original position as the first month, a number of festivals originally associated with the new year occurred in March. In the Imperial period, March was also a time for public celebration of syncretic or international deities whose ''cultus'' was spread throughout the empire, including Isis and Cybele. In the agricultural year The ''menologia rustica'' told farmers to expect 12 hours o ...
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Intercalaris
Mercedonius (Latin for "Work Month").) before beginning to be treated as nouns in their own right. ' seems to derive from ', meaning "wages"., also known as Mercedinus, Interkalaris or Intercalaris ( la, mensis intercalaris), was the intercalary month of the Roman calendar. The resulting leap year was either 377 or 378 days long. It theoretically occurred every two (or occasionally three) years, but was sometimes avoided or employed by the Roman pontiffs for political reasons regardless of the state of the solar year. Mercedonius was eliminated by Julius Caesar when he introduced the Julian calendar in 45 BC. History This month, instituted according to Roman tradition by Numa Pompilius, was supposed to be inserted every two or three years to align the conventional 355-day Roman year with the solar year. The decision of whether to insert the intercalary month was made by the pontifex maximus, supposedly based on observations to ensure the best possible correspondence with the seas ...
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Leap Year
A leap year (also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year) is a calendar year that contains an additional day (or, in the case of a lunisolar calendar, a month) added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical year or seasonal year. Because astronomical events and seasons do not repeat in a whole number of days, calendars that have a constant number of days in each year will unavoidably drift over time with respect to the event that the year is supposed to track, such as seasons. By inserting (called '' intercalating'' in technical terminology) an additional day or month into some years, the drift between a civilization's dating system and the physical properties of the Solar System can be corrected. A year that is not a leap year is a common year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, each leap year has 366 days instead of 365, by extending February to 29 days rather than the common 28. These extra days occur in each year that is an integer multi ...
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Februarius
''Februarius'', fully ''Mensis Februarius'' ("month of Februa"), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar from which the Julian and Gregorian month of February derived. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by '' Ianuarius'' ("month of Janus", January) and followed by '' Martius'' ("month of Mars", March). In the oldest Roman calendar, which the Romans believed to have been instituted by their legendary founder Romulus, March was the first month, and the calendar year had only ten months in all. ''Ianuarius'' and ''Februarius'' were supposed to have been added by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, originally at the end of the year. It is unclear when the Romans reset the course of the year so that January and February came first. ''Februarius'' was the only month in the pre-Julian calendar to have an even number of days, numbering 28. This was mathematically necessary to permit the year itself to have an odd number of days. Ancient sources derived ''F ...
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Ianuarius
''Ianuarius'', fully ''Mensis Ianuarius'' ("month of Janus"), was the first month of the ancient Roman calendar, from which the Julian and Gregorian month of January derived. It was followed by ''Februarius'' ("February"). In the calendars of the Roman Republic, ''Ianuarius'' had 29 days. Two days were added when the calendar was reformed under Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. In the oldest Roman calendar, which the Romans believed to have been instituted by their legendary founder Romulus, the first month was '' Martius'' ("month of Mars", March), and the calendar year had only ten months. ''Ianuarius'' and ''Februarius'' were supposed to have been added by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, originally at the end of the year. It is unclear when the Romans reset the course of the year so that January and February came first. ''Ianuarius'' is conventionally thought to have taken its name from Janus, the dual-faced god of beginnings, openings, passages, gates and doorways, but acc ...
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